behaviourist approach

• what are the assumptions of the behaviourist approach?

  • Blank slate - tabula rasa
  • Conditioning - classic/operant
  • Learn - animals learn in the same way
• what is the classic research for the behaviourist approach?

  Watson and Rayner 1920
• what is the classic research for the behaviourist approach called?

  Little Albert 1928
• Blank slate


  According to the behaviourist approach, when we are born our mind is like a 'tabula rasa' - in other words, a blank slate. We are not born equipped with the ability to think, and emotions/feelings have no influence over our behaviour. What we learn through our interactions with the environment determines our behaviour. We are completely passive and do not have any conscious thought about our behaviour.
• The behaviourist approach stands firmly on the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate. The term 'nurture' refers to the fact that behaviour is determined by factors external to the individual (overruling any innate or biological factors such as genes, hormones, evolution, etc.) - environmental determinism.
• Evolutionary psychologists explain human behaviour based on Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution. This theory states that species survive through 'NATURAL SELECTION': a process where those who adapt to their environment tend to survive and produce offspring.
• Blank slate psychological example


  • Bandura (1963) demonstrated how children learn aggression through external, environmental factors. Bandura exposed children to a number of aggressive / non-aggressive role models and found children who observed the aggressive role models learned this behaviour and behaved aggressively towards the doll themselves. Children who observed a non-aggressive role model did not behave aggressively towards the doll themselves.
• Classical Conditioning


  Associating two things together to give the same response to both. E.g. Pavlov - 3 steps: Pavlov presented his dogs with food (US) which resulted in the dogs salivating (UR). Pavlov then introduced a bell (NS) at the same time as presenting the food (US). Over time, the bell and the food became associated in the dogs' minds until eventually, when Pavlov rang the bell (CS), it resulted in the dogs salivating (CR).
• Operant Conditioning


  Reinforcement refers to something that will increase the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again. Reinforcement can be positive or negative. In punishment, this weakens behaviour and therefore decreases the chance that behaviour will happen again (this is the opposite of reinforcement).
• Behaviour learned through conditioning psychological example


  • Reinforcement Affect Model suggests that relationships develop through conditioning: Classical Conditioning (learning by association) leads us to like those who are nearby when we feel good. We will associate these people with the good feeling. Operant Conditioning (learning by consequences) leads us to like those who reward us.
• According to the behaviourist approach, the principles by which animals and humans learn are the same. Behaviourists believe that the only difference between animals and humans is quantitative and regards structure such as brain size. As a result, findings from animal studies can be applied to predict and make generalisations about human behaviour.
• Humans and animals learn in similar ways psychological example


  • Lorenz explored the concept of imprinting in his research on goslings. Lorenz found that geese follow the first moving thing they see (a process known as imprinting). This research clearly shows that the findings from research can be applied to explain human mother-child relationships.
• Assumption 1: Blank slate

  Mary Ainsworth explored the relationship between mother and child. Ainsworth suggests that the child is born as a blank slate and 'learns' how to form relationships from the first relationship the infant has with their primary caregiver. It is suggested that the first relationship the infant has acts as an internal model for all future relationships, i.e. a template that the child will follow. If the first relationship is secure and characterised by warmth, then the child will form secure, happy relationships moving forward. However, if the relationship is insecure and characterised by rejection and confusion, then the child will use this as their template moving forward.
• Assumption 2: Behaviour learnt through conditioning

  Reinforcement models of attraction state that we are more likely to form relationships with people/animals who reinforce us. Byrne (1971) developed the Reinforcement-Affect model, which states that we like people who are present when we are reinforced. They become associated with the positive reinforcement and are viewed positively. The theory assumes that: people identify stimuli as rewarding or punishing and aim to seek out rewards while avoiding punishment; positive feelings are associated with rewarding stimuli and negative feeling with punishing stimuli; neutral stimuli that is associated with reward will elicit positive feelings, and stimulus associated with punishment will lead to negative feelings. The Social Exchange theory takes this one step further and suggests that whether people feel positive or negative about their romantic relationships will depend on: their perception of what rewards they will receive from the relationship; what costs they think they will incur as a result of being in the relationship; what they think they deserve from the relationship; the probability that they could have a better relationship with someone else. Social Exchange theory suggests we will have romantic relationships that maximise our rewards and minimise our costs. Equity theory (proposed by Walster & Walster) suggests that people are more concerned in having equal rewards/losses.
• Assumption 3: Humans and animals learn in similar ways


  Lorenz explored the relationship between mother and child through his research on goslings. He split a cluster of goose eggs in two: group 1 were left under a goose mother, and group 2 were placed in an incubator. Lorenz made sure he was the first thing the incubated goslings saw when they hatched. He then imitated a mother's quacking sound, upon which the young gees regarded Lorenz as their mother and followed him accordingly. The other group followed the mother goose. Lorenz found that geese follow the first moving thing they see. This a process known as imprinting. This research clearly shows that the findings from research can be applied to explain human relationships.
• Behaviourist classic evidence


  Watson, J.B. and Raynor, R. (1920) Conditioned emotional reactions
• Watson & Raynor's methodology and procedure


  1. Stage 1: Establishing a conditioned emotional response

  2. Stage 2: Transferring a conditioned response to other stimuli

  3. Stage 3: Exploring the effect of time on conditioned emotional responses
• This was an investigation conducted in controlled conditions. Despite involving a single participant, known as Little Albert, it is not a case study as this would involve deeper analysis of various aspects of his life. This investigation only explores emotional reactions. Little Albert was eleven months old when the research began and was the son of a hospital employee where Watson and Raynor worked.
• Stage 1: Establishing a conditioned emotional response


  • Albert was initially presented with a white rat, to which he showed no fear
  • When Albert was presented with the rat a second time, Watson made a loud noise
  • The joint stimulation (rat being presented in combination with a loud noise) was then repeated six times
  • The rat was then presented alone, and Albert's behaviour was observed and recorded
• Stage 2: Transferring a conditioned response to other stimuli


  • Albert was presented with a range of different stimulus, including a rabbit, a dog, a fur coat, and cotton wool
  • The setting was then changed to a lecture hall, and Albert's behaviour was observed and recorded
• Stage 3: Exploring the effect of time on conditioned emotional responses


  • One month later, Albert was presented with a range of different stimulus, including a rat, a rabbit, a dog, a fur coat, and cotton wool, and his behaviour was observed and recorded
• Stage one (Establishing a conditioned emotional response): Albert was initially startled when he heard the 'loud noise', began crying during the joint stimulation phase, and continued to cry and began crawling away when the rat was presented without the loud noise.
• Stage two (Transferring a conditioned response to other stimuli): Albert began crying when initially presented with a rat, crawled away from the rabbit, turned his head and cried in response to the dog, kicked away the cotton wool before touching the packaging, withdrew his whole body but kept his eyes on the rat and did not cry. When the setting was changed to a lecture hall, Albert had no sudden fear reaction but did hold his hands away from the rat, he simply turned away from the rabbit, he turned away and cried until the dog was taken away, he jumped violently when joint stimulation (rat and sound) occurred.
• Stage three (The effect of time on conditioned emotional responses): Albert withdrew his body and when the fur coat was placed in contact with him, he began to cry. He stared at the rat and stayed still as it crawled towards him. When the rat touched his hand, Albert withdrew it immediately and leaned away. When the rat was placed on him, he withdrew his body and covered his eyes with his hands. He pushed the rabbit away with his feet whilst withdrawing his body. When the rabbit moved towards him, he began wailing.
• Watson & Raynor's conclusions: It is probable that many of the phobias in psychopathology are true conditioned emotional reactions either of the direct or the transferred type. It is also possible that the persistence of conditioned responses will only be found in people who are not as strong-willed. Emotional disturbances in adults cannot be traced back to sex alone, as Freudians would theorise. They must be considered with regards to conditioned and transferred responses set up in infancy and early youth in all three of the fundamental human emotions: love, fear and rage.
• One key ethical issue present in this research is risk of stress, anxiety, humiliation or pain.


  It was clear to see that Little Albert was very distressed throughout the procedures. Indeed, from an ethical perspective, Watson and Raynor should have suspended the research process and not continued through the different stages that lasted a number of months.
• There may have been issues regarding valid consent.


  Little Albert was the son of a low-paid hospital worker employed at the hospital where Watson and Raynor worked. There are question marks regarding whether valid consent was obtained from Albert's mum. Consent is only valid when an individual understands what will and what could happen in a study. Critics suggest the power difference between the researchers (prominent doctors at the hospital) and Albert's mum (low-paid worker) meant it would have been difficult for her to refuse.
• The results of this research suggests that children's behaviour can be 'conditioned'.


  Conditioning techniques can be used in education to positively shape young people's behaviour and maximise their learning and results.
• Using conditioning techniques on schoolchildren does not always yield positive implications for society.


  Conditioning techniques in education can have a negative effect on children. For example, some argue that the notion of rewards/punishments is harmful to a child's internal motivation to learn. Society requires individuals who are self-motivated, as beyond childhood, rewards are not as readily available and as such conditioning children in this way has long-term negative effects.
• One positive of this research is the degree of control Watson & Raynor had.

  Having this level of control is positive because it increases the experimental validity of the research.
• One negative of this research is that there are question marks concerning the representativeness of the sample used and whether generalisations can be made.


  The use of only one participant with the characteristics he possessed means it is difficult to draw conclusions regarding whether the findings can be generalised to other children, who perhaps would have a very different behavioural response to Albert.
• One positive component of the procedure is that Watson & Raynor had baseline measurements in place in order to compare.


  Having a baseline control condition means that the findings are more scientific and can be attributed to the conditioning techniques used by Watson and Raynor.
• One negative of this research is that the procedures were not completed as originally planned.


  Watson and Raynor intended to counter-condition Little Albert in the final stages of the research. Little Albert was removed from the research before this important stage was completed, thus he left with a series of specific phobias.
• Behaviourist therapy


  Therapy based on the assumption that the underlying cause of all normal behaviour is through learning (conditioning)
• Classical conditioning


  • New behaviour is learnt through a process of association, whereby an unconditioned stimulus becomes associated with a neutral stimulus, learning the same response to both
• Operant conditioning


  • Behaviour is learned through reinforcement
• Aversion therapy


  Therapy designed to cause individuals to develop an intense dislike or feeling of disgust - an aversion - to a particular stimulus
• Aversion therapy


  1. Medical examination and health check

  2. Therapist educates client on how therapy works

  3. Client creates learned association between aversive stimuli and addictive behaviour
• Aversive stimuli


  • Electric shock
  • Drug with disgusting taste and/or unpleasant sickness-inducing side effects
• Addictive behaviour


  • Alcoholism