The Autocracy of Alex II and Alex III

• After various reforms were passed that transformed the Russian state, an attempted assassination attempt in 1866 shook Alex II. After this point, more repressive policies were adopted.

  what was the reason for the reversal of Alex II's liberal stance
• 'The voice of God orders us to take up the task of ruling, with total faith in the strength and righteousness of our autocratic power. We are summoned to reaffirm that power and to preserve it for the benefit of the people from any encroachment upon it' 


  Alexander III's address to the nation after his father's assassination:
• He didn't set up institutions of civil society or rule of law (a democratic society which allows all of its members to enjoy the protections of laws applied equally and fairly) which left the regime nothing but to fall back on repressiveness. 


  What was the aim problem with Alex II's reforms
• • April 1866 a former noble student Dmitry Karakozov shot Alex II but missed.
  • A year later a Polish person Antoni Berezowski fired a canon carrying him and his two sons but he also missed.
  • April 1879, a former student fired at Alex five times
  • December 1879 a bomb was planted under the wrong train
  • Feb 1880 mine positioned below Winter Palace, nearly successful, killed 12 people and wounded 50 ppl. 


  Alexander II attempted assassinations
• • the number of assassination attempts
  • his eldest son and heir died and his wife suffering tuberculosis he turned to his mistress Dolgorukova 


  Why was Alex more reactionary
• • Tolstoy minister of education
  • Shuvalov head of Third Section 


  Alex II's change of appointments in 1866 to more conservative ministers
• • orthodox believer and wanted a tight control over education were essential to eradicate Western ideas and get rid of criticism over autocracy.
  • Zemstva lost its power over education and church regained its power

  Tolstoy
• • strengthened police, stepped up persecution of ethnic and religious minorities
  • searches and arrests increased and new governer generals were established in 1879 with emergency powers to prosecute in military courts and exile political offenders.
  • Show trials: trial that took place in public usually for propaganda purposes.

  Shuvalov:
• He was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs to which he released political prisoners, relaxed censorship and removed salt-tax and lifted restrictions of the zemstva. The Third Section was abolished and a regular police force was established with a special section called the Okhrana which soon became oppressive as well.

  Loris-Melikov constitution
• The Loris-Melikov Constitution (1863) proposed by Count Loris Melikov who was an Armenian prince and a member of the Council of State. He suggested a constitutional monarchy where the tsar would be advised by a council of state made up of nobles, merchants and peasants. This proposal was rejected by Alexander II because it gave too much power to the council of state.
• In 1874, the Zemstva Law was passed giving local government councils greater responsibility for agriculture, health care and education. However, they had no say on taxation or law making. They could only make recommendations to the central government. In 1879, the Zemstva Law was extended to include all provinces except Moscow and St Petersburg. It was repealed in 1889 when the government decided to take back control of these areas.
• • Before her case there was a show trial (Trial of 193) with a sympathetic jury who acquitted 153 of the 193 defendants who were accused of revolutionary activities and the others were given light sentences.
  • The speeches of the defendants were reported in the news which made Zasulich feel sympathetic towards the ones on trial, so much so that she shot and seriously wounded a governor of ST Peterburg's, Dimitri Trepov.
  • In the end she was found not guilty. 


  Vera Zasulich 1878
• • On the morning of this day, Alex II signed the Loris-Melikov constitution and a report on it to discuss it with the Council of Ministers.
  • He was on his way to the Winter Palace in a closed carriage
  • Members of the 'People's Will' positioned themselves along the route with concealed bombs.
  • The first two bombs missed and landed at the Cossacks, causing Alex II to get out his carriage.
  • Then another revolutionist threw a bomb and effectively killed him.

  Assassination of Alex II in 13th March 1881
• • Influenced by tutor Pobedonostev believed that because he had the backing of God Alex III could do whatever he believed was to be right and that the people had no right to question him but to love and obey him. He also denounced the Loris-Melikov constitution.
  • The beginning of his reign was marked by the public hanging of the conspirators who were involved in his father's assassination.

  Alexander III as tsar:
• • The Tsar would rule "with faith in the strength and truth of the autocratic power".
  • Reason for change of Alex III change of direction(his words): "Pushing Russia on the wrong road".


  April 1881: 'Manifesto of Unshakeable Autocracy'
• • Appointed Alex III tutor in 1865 who was very close to him and was nicknamed 'The Black Tsar'
  • It is thought that he wrote the Manifesto of Unshakeable Autocracy
  • He also tutored Nicholas II

  Pobedonostev:
• • watched his father die and refused to stay in the winter Palace after that incident and moved to a fortress in Gatchina instead.
  • He was a very tall and strong man, he could tear a pack of cards in half...
  • He married a Danish Princess who adopted the orthodox religion and a new name to be ready to marry Alex III.


  A little more about Alex III...
• • It was abandoned and reforming ministers, like Dimitri Milyutin, resigned.
  • Alex III relied on conservative ministers
  • Mikhali Katkov was a right-wing journalist who edited the Moscow News and justified Alex's conservative views to the literate public. 


  What happened to the Loris-Melikov constitution after Alex II died
• • Land Captain's introduced in July 1889 who were responsible for law enforcement and government in the countryside and could ignore the normal judicial process, overturning court judgements.
  • The office had the power to override elections to the zemstvo, disregard zemstvo decisions.

  Changes in local government
• • reduced peasants vote and placed the zemstva under the control of the central government
  • it's main aim to divert political power over education, health, local transport and engineering projects.

  1890 and election arrangements
• • electorate reduced to owners of a property above a certain value
  • mayors and members of town councils were subject to the central government 


  June 1892 and towns
• • Department of Police (including the Okhrana) was led by Plehve between 1881-84
  • Number of police increased and new branches of the criminal investigation department was set up.
  • Drive to recruit spies and counter-spies and 'agent provocateurs' who posed as revolutionaries to catch others.

  Changes in policing:
• • offices in St Petersburg, Moscow and Warsaw where they took responsibility over security and investigation
  • They intercepted and read mail, checked up on activities in factories, universities, army and the State.
  • They detained suspects, restored torture and executions
  • Communists, socialists and trade unionists were targets of their investigations but they also watched civil servants the members of government. 


  Okhrana
• • An area of the Empire could be deemed as an 'area of subversion' and police could search, arrest, detain, question, imprison and exile those who had committed a crime and those who had been related to the criminals.
  • Arrested people had no right to legal representation.

  1882 Statue on Police Surveillance
• • 1885 decree gave the Minister of Justice greater power in terms of dismissing judges.
  • 1887 the Ministry was granted powers to hold closed court sessions and in 1889 it became responsible for the appointment of town judges.
  • 1887: qualifications needed by jurors were raised and in 1889 volost courts were under control of Land Captains. 


  Changes in judicial system:
• • Delyanov who introduced a new university charter in 1884 which was responsible for appointments for the staff in universities as well subjects being approval by the Ministry of education first.
  • These subjects had to be based on 'religious, moral and patriotic orientation' rather than academic.
  • Universities were closed for women and students life was closely supervised including not being able to hang out in groups of more than 5.

  Changes in education:
• • children of lowest classes were restricted to primary education and being 'taken out of the social environment to which they belong' and it's education was placed in the hands of the Orthodox Church
  • Overll numbers of schools and those receiving education did increase but 21% of the population was literate by 1897


  Primary schools
• • Tolstoy established a committee in 1882 which issued a 'temporary regulations' which allowed newspapers to be closed down and a life ban on publishers and editors.
  • All publications had to be approved and libraries and reading rooms were restricted in books they were allowed to have. 


  Changes in censorship:
• There was some positive change such as a law in May 1881 which was passed to reduce redemption payments and cancelled arrests of ex-serfs in the 37 provinces of the Empire. In May 1885 the poll tax was abolished and an inheritance tax was introduced aimed to shift some of the taxes away from the lower class. 


  Was everything Alex III passed that bad?
• • Died in November 1894 of kidney failure
  • He restored political authority and with it came 13 years of peace but this is a consequence to the next stage during Nicholas II reign as there was no rule of law and traditional elites strengthened meaning people had started to have enough 


  Death of Alex III