Culture Bias

• Bias and Universality

  Many argue that although psychology has claimed to find 'truths' which are universal, in reality, their findings only apply to the particular groups that they have studied. Critics claim psychology has ignored culture as an important influence, meaning it has mistakenly assumed that findings conducted on individualistic findings can be applied elsewhere. E.g. SI studied by Milgram and Asch were originally conducted using US participants, but the results of their study differed when it was replicated elsewhere (Kilham and Mann).
• Cultural Bias

  If the 'norm' or 'standard' for a particular behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of one particular culture, then any cultural differences in behaviour- that deviate from this standard- will be inevitably seen as 'abnormal', 'inferior', or 'unusual'.
• Ethnocentrism

  A form of cultural bias, the belief in the superiority of one's own cultural group. This may be communicated through the view that any behaviour which don't conform to the (usually individualist) model is then somehow deficient, unsophisticated, or underdeveloped.
• Ethnocentrism- Example

  Ainsworth's Strange Situation is criticised for only reflecting the norms and values of American culture. Identifying the key variables of attachment type as the child's experience of anxiety on separation. Thus suggesting that the 'ideal' or Secure attachment was the infant showing moderate distress when left alone. Though this led to misinterpretations of child-rearing practices in other countries, seeing them as deviating. German mothers were seen as cold and rejecting, rather than encouraging independence. SS is an inappropriate measure for non-US children.
• Cultural Relativism (Etic and Emic)

  Berry drew a distinction between etic and emic approaches in the study of human behaviour. Etic Approach: looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and attempts to apply and describe these behaviours as being universal. Emic Approach: functions from within or inside certain cultures and identifies behaviours specific to that culture. Ainsworth's research is an example of imposed etic- studying behaviour within a single culture and assuming it could be applied universally.
• Cultural Relativism

  Berry argues that psychology has been guilty of imposing an etic approach- arguing that certain theories are universal, when they are actually the result of emic research within a single culture. Meaning psychologists should be more mindful of the cultural relativism of their research- the findings that they discover may only make sense from the perspective of the culture which they were discovered. Being able to recognise this avoids cultural bias in research.
• AO2: Cultural Bias in Diagnosis of Mental Disorder (1)

  Cochrane and Sashidharan revealed that African-Caribbean immigrants are 7 times more likely to be diagnosed with a mental disorder. These findings have led many to question the validity of the DSM and ICD for diagnosing individuals who are born outside of the dominant culture. To counter this, DSM-4 included mention of 25 culture-bound syndromes (CBSs)- group of symptoms classified as treatable disorders in certain cultures that aren't recognised in UK and US.
• AO2: Cultural Bias in Diagnosis of Mental Disorder

  CBSs include brain fog- difficulty concentrating, remembering and thinking (West Africa); and koro- the belief that the penis is retracting into the body (China). The existence of the CBSs suggests that the DSM and ICD were ethnocentric, and that mental disorder isn't a universally agreed concept. It has been argued that eating disorders, such as anorexia, should be considered CBSs as they are much more prevalent in individualistic cultures.
• AO3: Individualism & Collectivism (1)

  When psychologists have made reference to 'culture' they have used the individualist-collectivist distinction. IC: associated with countries such as US which value personal freedom and independence. CC: such as India and China who place more emphasis on interdependence and group needs. However, critics have suggested that in this age of global communication and increased interconnectedness, this simplistic distinction no longer applies.
• AO3: Individualism & Collectivism (2)

  Takano and Osaka found that 14 out of 15 studies that compared the US and Japan found no evidence of the traditional distinction between individualism and collectivism. This could perhaps suggest that cultural bias in research is less of an issue than it once was.
• AO3: Cultural Relativism Vs Universality

  Berry's concept of imposed etic reminds psychologists of the culturally specific nature of their work. However, it shouldn't be assumed that all psychology is culturally relative and that there are no universal behaviours. Research by Ekman has found that basic facial expressions for emotions are the same all over the human and animal world. Some attachment behaviours like imitation and interactional synchrony are universal. A full understanding of human behaviour requires study of universals and variations among individuals and groups.
• AO3: Unfamiliarity with Research Tradition

  When conducting research in 'Western cultures' the participants familiarity with general aims and objectives of scientific enquiry is assumed. However, the same knowledge and 'faith' in science may not extend to other cultures which don't have historical experience of research. Therefore, demand characteristics may be exaggerated when working with members of the local population (Bond and Smith) which can have an adverse effect on research validity.
• AO3: Operationalisation of Variables

  In cross-cultural variations, variables under review may not be experienced in the same way by all participants. For example, the behavioural expression (not including facial expressions) of emotions such as anger may give rise to different behaviours in different cultures. In China, invasion of personal space is normal, whereas in the UK it is seen as confrontational. Issues like these may then impact interactions between the researcher and participants in cross-cultural studies. Also considering the setting (issues with room size in SS replications).
• AO3: Challenging 'Implicit' Assumptions

  The benefits of conducting cross-cultural research us it can challenge our typically individualistic ways of thinking and viewing the world. Being able to see some of the concepts we take for granted not being shared by others can promote greater sensitivity to individual differences and cultural relativism in the future. This counters 'scientific racism' that has been made about past psychological theories, and means that conclusions drawn are likely to have more validity if they include recognition of culture in their production of findings.