research

• Scientific Method


  1. Identify the problem

  2. Observe

  3. Formulate hypothesis

  4. Conduct Experiment

  5. Gather and analyze data

  6. Draw conclusion

  7. Communicate Results
• Research Design is the overall plan or strategy that guides the process of conducting research
• Research design


  Serves as a framework for research planning and answering your research questions
• Formulating your research design

  1. Determine what type of data you need

  2. Identify the participants or sources of your data

  3. Investigate which variables and/or hypotheses you will look at

  4. Decide how you will collect and analyze the needed data
• Significance of research design

  • Serves as a guide for direction during the actual experimentation
  • Allows a gain of maximum information relevant to the problem at a minimum cost
  • Makes the statistical test of significance valid because it takes into consideration all the assumptions that went into deriving the various statistics
• Research design


  The complete sequence of steps that will be undertaken in a project, ensuring appropriate data will be obtained in a way that permits an objective analysis, leading to valid inferences concerning the stated problem
• Key components of an experimental research design

  • Classification of Variables
  • Research Objectives
  • Population and Sampling
  • Time, costs and responsibility
  • Randomization and Blocking
  • Sample Size and Replications
  • Outcome Measurements
• Independent or Manipulated Variable

  The variable that the researcher manipulates or varies
• Dependent or Responding Variable

  The variable that the researcher observes during and/or after experimentation/testing
• Extraneous (Control/Constant) Variable


  The variable that the researcher keeps constant during experimentation or data gathering
• Research Objectives


  Clearly define the purpose and goals of the study, and specify what you aim to investigate or prove
• Population


  The group you want to study, like plants, animals, etc.
• Sampling


  Choosing appropriate methods to select participants, ensuring your findings can be generalized beyond the sample
• Time, Costs and Responsibility


  • Consider the time frame for the study, estimate costs and allocate resources, and assign responsibilities to team members
• Randomization and Blocking


  • Randomly assign participants to different experimental conditions, and use blocking to control for potential confounding variables
• Sample Size and Replications

  • Determine the number of participants/samples needed for statistical validity, and replicate the experiment to enhance reliability (larger samples enhance reliability)
• Outcome Measurements


  Define the measurements to assess the effects of treatments and avoid measurement bias
• Experimental Group


  The test sample or group that receives an experimental procedure and is exposed to changes in the independent variable being tested
• Control Group


  A group separated from the rest of the experiment such that the independent variable being tested cannot influence the results
• Experiments that use control groups are called controlled experiments
• Principles of a sound Research Design

  • Reduction of Variance/Local control
  • Replication
  • Randomization
• Reduction of Variance/Local control


  Balancing, grouping, and blocking of experimental units so that the units within each block are relatively homogeneous
• Replication


  Conducting an experiment or test using three or more homogeneous experimental units subjected to the same treatment under similar conditions
• Randomization


  An unbiased method of assignment of experimental units (or subjects) to the treatments, assuring the validity of the statistical tests of significance
• Completely Randomized Design (CRD)


  One of the two basic types of statistical experimental designs
• Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD)


  The other basic type of statistical experimental designs
• The other designs are variations of these two basic types
• Comparing Fertilizers for Corn Yield


  1. Objective: Determine whether there is a significant difference in corn yield based on three different fertilizers (A, B, C)

  2. Experimental Setup: Twelve (12) different plots of land, Treatments (fertilizers A, B, C) will be randomly assigned to these plots

  3. Randomization Procedure: Each fertilizer type is assigned at random to 4 plots

  4. Experimental Units (Plots): Twelve (12) plots in total (3 treatments × 4 replications)

  5. Data Collection: Measure corn yield (e.g., weight of harvested corn) from each plot

  6. Analysis: Compare the average yield for each fertilizer type using statistical tests (e.g., ANOVA)
• Given you have 4 treatments (A, B, C, and D) and 5 replicates, you would have 20 experimental units
• Features of a Good Design

  • Well-defined set of experimental units, Experimental units have homogeneous characteristics or have been classified accordingly into homogeneous groups, Reduction of variance/local control, Replication, Randomization
• Biological Methods


  • Microscopy
  • Tissue Culture
  • Aseptic Technique
  • Dissection
  • Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
  • Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
• Microscopy


  A laboratory technique with the use of a microscope
• Microscopy


  • Immunofluorescence Microscopy - used to locate specific proteins in cells using antibodies
• Tissue Culture


  A method in which fragments of a plant or animal tissue are introduced into a new, artificial environment, where they continue to function or grow
• Aseptic Technique


  A set of methods employed to prevent microbial contamination during biological procedures. It is a critical technique in maintaining sterile working conditions. These methods protect both the experimenter and the experiment, ensuring the results obtained are free from external contamination sources.
• Dissection


  The act of cutting open an organism to study its internal anatomy. It provides a hands-on approach to understanding the structure and function of various organisms.
• Agarose Gel Electrophoresis


  A method for separation (by size), quantifying, purification of nucleic acids fragments mixture, and analysis of DNA restriction fragments. It is one of the most widely-used techniques in biochemistry and molecular biology.
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)


  It amplifies specific DNA sequences.
• Chemical Methods


  • Spectrophotometry
  • Extraction
  • Titration
  • Qualitative test for secondary metabolites
• Spectrophotometry


  Measures the amount of light absorbed by a sample.