My notes

• Kinetic energy


  0.5 x mass x (velocity)^2
• Gravitational potential energy


  • Mass x gravitational field strength x change in vertical height
• Work done


  Force x distance moved in the direction of the force
• Power


  Work done / time taken
• Moment of a force

  Force x distance normal to the direction of the force
• Charge


  Current x time
• Energy transferred


  Charge moved x potential difference
• Potential difference


  Current x resistance
• Electrical power


  Current x potential difference
• Electrical power


  Current^2 x resistance
• Density


  Mass / volume
• Force exerted on a spring


  Spring constant x extension
• Brave Macbeth – Well he deserves the name’ - by Ross- Act 1 Scene 2 
• What type of bonding occurs between a metal and a non-metal?

  Ionic bonding
• What happens to electrons during ionic bonding?

  Electrons are transferred from the metal to the non-metal
• What are the charged particles formed during ionic bonding called?

  ions
• How do oppositely charged ions interact in ionic bonding?

  They attract through electrostatic forces
• What is a giant ionic lattice?

  A structure formed by the attraction of oppositely charged ions
• What ions are formed in sodium chloride?

  Na⁺ and Cl^-

  
• What occurs to sodium and chlorine during the formation of sodium chloride?

  Sodium loses an electron and chlorine gains an electron
• How does the charge of an ion relate to the strength of the ionic bond?

  Ions with a greater charge have a greater attraction, resulting in stronger ionic bonds
• What effect does ionic radius have on the strength of ionic bonding?

  Larger ions have a weaker attraction due to greater distance
• What are cations and anions?

  Cations are positively charged ions and anions are negatively charged ions
• How can ionic bonding be represented visually?

  Using dot and cross diagrams

  
• What is a covalent bond?

  A bond formed between two non-metals by sharing electrons

  
• What is the relationship between the number of shared electron pairs and covalent bonds?

  Multiple electron pairs can be shared to form multiple covalent bonds
• How are shared electron pairs represented in dot and cross diagrams?

  By the overlap of circles representing the atoms
• What indicates a single, double, and triple bond in covalent bonding?

  Single bond: 2 electrons, double bond: 4 electrons, triple bond: 6 electrons
• How does bond length relate to bond strength in covalent bonds?

  Shorter bonds tend to be stronger
• What is a dative bond?

  A bond where both electrons in the shared pair come from a single atom

  
• How is a dative bond represented in diagrams?

  Using an arrow from the lone electron pair

  
• What happens to a dative bond after it forms?

  It is treated as a standard covalent bond
• How do lone pairs affect bond angles in molecules?

  Lone pairs provide additional repulsive forces, reducing bond angles
• What is the bond angle reduction caused by each lone pair?

  1. 5°
• What determines the shape of a simple molecule or ion?

  • Number of electron pairs around the central atom
  • Repulsion between electron pairs
  • Bonding pairs indicate basic shape
  • Lone pairs indicate additional repulsion

  
• What are the common shapes of molecules based on electron pairs?

  • Linear: 2 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs, 180°
  • V-Shaped: 2 bonding pairs, 2 lone pairs, 104.5°
  • Trigonal Planar: 3 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs, 120°
  • Triangular Pyramid: 3 bonding pairs, 1 lone pair, 107°
  • Tetrahedral: 4 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs, 109.5°
  • Trigonal Bipyramidal: 5 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs, 90° and 120°
  • Octahedral: 6 bonding pairs, 0 lone pairs, 90°
• What is electronegativity?

  The power of an atom to attract the electron pair in a covalent bond towards itself
• How does electronegativity change across a period and down a group?

  It increases across a period and decreases down a group
• What happens if the electronegativity difference between two atoms is great enough?

  An ionic bond will form between them
• What defines a polar bond?

  A polar bond results from a large difference in electronegativity between two atoms