Reproduction

• Reproduction


  The process in which organisms give rise to new organisms or offspring
• Reproduction


  • Enables the continuity of the species, generation after generation
• Asexual Reproduction


  One Parent
• Sexual Reproduction


  Involves the union of sex cells or gametes (Two Parents)
• Fertilization


  Union of the male and female gametes to produce a fertilized egg called zygote
• Asexual Reproduction


  The process by which a single organism produces genetically identical offspring
• Common Types of Asexual Reproduction

  • Binary Fission
  • Budding
  • Vegetative Propagation
  • Regeneration
• Autotroph


  Producers, they produce their own food
• Autotrophs


  • Produce food for themselves and every other living being
  • Every food chain starts with an autotroph
• Chemosynthetic Autotrophs


  Prokaryotes that utilize chemicals such as hydrogen sulfide or methane in their environments
• Chemosynthesis


  1. Uses energy from chemical reactions

  2. Incorporates carbon dioxide into organic molecules

  3. Produces organic compounds as the organism's energy source
• Photosynthetic Autotrophs


  Provide food for heterotrophic organisms and produce oxygen
• Heterotroph


  Consumers, they are unable to prepare their own food
• Types of Heterotrophs


  • Parasitic
  • Insectivorous
  • Saprophytic
  • Symbiotic
• Macronutrients are used in large amounts, while micronutrients are used in smaller amounts
• Primary Ingredients of Granular Fertilizers

  • Nitrogen
  • Phosphorus
  • Potassium
• Nitrogen


  Essential for leaf and stem growth, utilized in amino acids to build plant proteins
• Phosphorus


  Supports root and seed production, essential for DNA replication, cell wall formation, and the reproduction cycle
• Potassium


  Crucial for the plant's vascular system, facilitates nutrient movement, enhances the flavor of fruits and vegetables
• Micronutrients like manganese, boron, and zinc play a vital role in plant growth and development
• Functions of Micronutrients


  • Aid in appropriate plant development
  • Contribute to immunity, helping plants resist bacteria and pests
  • Enhance resilience against environmental elements
• Ingestion


  1. Food processing begins with the first bite

  2. Teeth break apart the food as you chew

  3. Salivary glands secrete saliva to lubricate the food particles and the enzyme amylase to begin the chemical breakdown of starches

  4. The muscular action of the tongue forms the food into a smooth, rounded package called a bolus

  5. The bolus is swallowed and moved down the esophagus to the stomach by peristalsis
• Digestion


  1. Enzymes are secreted in the small intestine to further break down proteins

  2. In the stomach, glands secrete acid and the enzyme pepsin to break down proteins, resulting in a mixture called chyme

  3. The pancreas secretes enzymes that break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in the small intestine, ensuring all nutrients are broken down into a form that can be absorbed and used by the body

  4. Mechanical digestion increases the surface area for the enzymes to work on, making chemical digestion easier

  5. Chemical digestion allows nutrients to be absorbed by the body through the action of enzymes
• Absorption


  1. Simple particles produced by chemical processing enter the bloodstream via the cellular membranes of the small intestine's lining

  2. Glucose, fructose, and galactose are absorbed by the capillaries and brought to the liver

  3. Amino acids are absorbed by the capillaries and used for growth and repair of damaged tissues

  4. Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by the lacteal vessels and brought to the lymphatic circulation, used as energy sources or deposited in various parts of the body
• Elimination


  1. Waste products are formed as food is broken down into its simplest form

  2. Carbon dioxide is expelled out of the body through the lungs, while excess water exits the body in the form of urine and sweat

  3. In the large intestine, indigestible contents are transformed into solid waste, which includes fiber, dead cells, and other undigested materials
• Oral Cavity


  Mouth, where food is turned into small pieces with the help of the teeth and saliva
• States of matter


  • Solid
  • Liquid
  • Gas
• As oxygen is utilized by the cells comprising the digestive organs

  Carbon dioxide and water are released as metabolic wastes
• Respiration


  Supplies the different digestive organs with the oxygen they need, and at the same time, it removes carbon dioxide from them
• Removal of carbon dioxide and water from the body

  1. Carbon dioxide is expelled out of the body through the lungs

  2. Excess water exits the body in the form of urine and sweat
• Transformation of indigestible contents into solid waste in the large intestine

  1. Includes fiber, dead cells, and other undigested materials

  2. Soluble fiber dissolves, but insoluble fiber remains

  3. Involves water absorption and mucus secretion

  4. Moves the waste to the rectum for expulsion
• Oral Cavity


  • Mouth - Turns food into small pieces with the help of the teeth and saliva
  • Mechanical breakdown through chewing, and chemical breakdown via saliva containing enzymes like amylase
  • Tongue's role in taste perception, bolus formation, and swallowing initiation
• Throat


  • Pharynx - Receives food and air from the mouth and nasal cavities
  • Involuntary muscle contractions ensure food enters the esophagus, not the wind pipe
• Esophagus


  • Carries food from the mouth to the stomach
  • Peristalsis propels food toward the stomach
  • Lower esophageal sphincter prevents acid reflux
• Stomach


  • Churns and mixes food with gastric juices
  • Temporary storage for food
  • Mechanical digestion through peristalsis and churning
  • Production of gastric juices containing hydrochloric acid and enzymes like pepsin
  • Regulation of chyme release into the small intestine through pyloric sphincter
  • Hormone secretion (ghrelin and leptin) for hunger and satiety
• Small Intestines


  • Digests and absorbs proteins, fats, and carbohydrates
  • Primary site for nutrition absorption
  • Chemical breakdown with pancreatic enzymes (amylases, lipases, proteases)
  • Absorption of nutrients (amino acids, sugars, fatty acids) via enterocytes
  • Increased surface area for absorption through folds, villi, and microvilli
  • Water absorption and maintenance of water balance
• Pancreas


  Produces digestive enzymes for carbohydrate, protein, and fat breakdown
• Liver


  • Stores nutrients and filters blood from the stomach and intestines
  • Converts excess glucose to glycogen for energy storage
  • Breaks down proteins into amino acids
  • Metabolizes carbohydrates and fats
  • Produces bile for fat emulsification
• Gallbladder


  Stores and releases bile for fat digestion and absorption
• Large Intestines


  • Absorbs salt and water from food, leaving a soft mass called stool
  • Extracts water and electrolytes from undigested material
  • Forms solid stools for elimination
  • Acts as temporary storage for feces