Physical Science

• Big Bang Theory


  The exponential expansion of a singularity 13.8 billion years ago. The entire universe was at one time confined to a dense, hot, super massive ball. After its formation, it began to expand and cool; then a cataclysmic explosion occurred, hurling massive materials in all directions, therefore creating Universe.
• Stages of the Big Bang Theory

  The universe may have begun as an infinitely hot and dense initial singularity, a point with all of space, time, matter and energy.

  2. All of it then began to rapidly expand in a process known as inflation.

  3. Protons and neutrons came together to form different types of nuclei by nucleosynthesis or nuclear fusion.

  4. Electrons started to bind to ionized protons and nuclei forming neutral atoms in a process called recombination.
• Nucleosynthesis


  (nucleo, meaning "nucleus", synthesis meaning "putting together") is defined as the formation of elements by combining the simple nuclei or atomic particles by nuclear reaction with the help pf extremely hot temperature and pressure.
• Types of Nucleosynthesis


  • Big Bang nucleosynthesis
  • Stellar nucleosynthesis
  • Supernova nucleosynthesis
• Big Bang Nucleosynthesis


  Process of producing the light elements during the big bang expansion, 3 minutes after Big Bang, the protons and neutrons formed hydrogen and helium.
• Stellar Nucleosynthesis


  Process by which elements are formed within cores and shells of stars, requires very high temperature and pressure, elements heavier than beryllium up to iron are formed through stellar nucleosynthesis, Hydrogen burning
• Stages in the Life Cycle of a Star


  Nebula - a large cloud of dust that contains mostly hydrogen

  2. Protostar - gases from the nebula collapse to form core

  3. Main Sequence Star - Hydrogen undergoes nuclear fusion and the star becomes stable

  4. Red Giant - the star expands when the hydrogen is depleted at the core and starts burning helium

  5. White Dwarf - remnant of a red giant star that has blown off its material into space

  6. Black Dwarf - a hypothetical remnant of a white dwarf that has cooled down

  7. Supernova - when a super red giant star's core runs out of helium, it explodes, dispersing elements into space

  8. Neutron Star - a core (remnant of a supernova) which is a dense collection of tightly packed neutrons

  9. Black Hole - a supermassive remnant of a supernova with a very powerful gravitational field
• Proton


  Positive subatomic particle of an atom
• Neutron


  Neutral subatomic particle of an atom
• Positron


  A subatomic particle with the same mass as an electron and a numerically equal but positive charge
• Gamma ray


  A penetrating form of electromagnetic radiation arising from the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei
• Neutrino


  A subatomic particle that is very similar to an electron, but has no electrical charge and a very small mass, which might even be zero
• Proton-Proton Chain Reaction


  Main source of energy radiated by the main sequence stars, a series of thermonuclear reactions in the star where hydrogen fuse with other hydrogen nuclei to form helium
• Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) Cycle


  Catalytic cycle of gamma emission and beta decay that converts hydrogen into helium, utilizes carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen as catalyst to produce helium, utilized by more massive and hotter stars in converting hydrogen to helium, occurs when the central temperature of the star is more than 15 million Kelvin (K)
• Nucleosynthesis of Heavy Elements

  Triple-Alpha Process (TPA), Alpha Ladder Process
• Triple-Alpha Process (TPA)


  In the red giant stars that has run out of hydrogen in its core, fusion of helium powers the star, a reaction which fuses three helium nuclei to form carbon, takes place when temperature exceed 100 million K, iron is the heaviest element this process can make
• Alpha Ladder Process


  This process forms heavier elements until Iron in the core of the super red giant stars, it starts with carbon fusing with helium, with product fusing with helium until it forms iron, process which produces heavy elements (elements heavier than iron), undergone by massive stars, involves neutron capture: a nuclear reaction in which an atomic nucleus collides with one or more neutrons to create heavier elements
• Supernova Nucleosynthesis


  Neutron Capture - Iron formed in the core of the stars captures neutron to form more heavy elements
• 1. process (Slow neutron capture)
  2. process is the process of forming heavier elements than iron over long period of time
• 1. process (Rapid neutron capture)
  2. process has a faster rate of capturing neutrons before seeds nucleus undergoes radioactive decay
• Atomic Number (Z)


  The number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of that element
• Mass Number (A)


  The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom
• Determining the total number of p+, e-, n0 of an Atom

  1. Total number of p+ = Z

  2. Total number of e- = Total number of p+

  3. Total number of n0 = A - Z
• Elements


  • hydrogen
  • helium
  • lithium
  • beryllium
  • boron
  • carbon
• Isotope


  Atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass numbers due to a change in the number of neutrons
• Shorthand Notation


  Write the mass number of the atom after the name, separated by a hyphen. Element X-A
• Shorthand Notation


  • Chromium-52
  • 24-52Cr
• Information in Periodic Tables

  • Atomic Number
  • Atomic Mass
  • Mass Number
  • Number of Protons
  • Number of Neutrons
  • Number of Electrons
  • Element Symbol
• Isotopes


  • 32Ge
  • 73Ge
  • 169Tm
  • 222Rn
  • 208Pb
  • 10B
• Determining the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in atoms

  1. Aluminum

  2. Platinum

  3. Cobalt

  4. Silver

  5. Gold
• Writing the shorthand notation and determining the number of neutrons

  1. Aluminum

  2. Platinum

  3. Cobalt

  4. Silver

  5. Gold
• Atomic number


  The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom
• Isotopes


  Atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
• Isotopes


  • Element A
  • Element C
• Types of radiation


  • Alpha - positive charged particle
  • Beta - negative charged particle
  • Gamma - uncharged ray
• Radioactive decay


  Also known as nuclear decay or radioactivity, is a random process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses its energy by emission of radiation or particle. A material containing unstable nuclei is considered radioactive.
• Types of radioactive decay

  • Alpha decay
  • Beta decay
  • Positron emission
  • Electron capture
  • Gamma emission
• Alpha decay


  AXZ → A-4XZ-2 + 4He2
• Beta decay


  AXZ → AXZ+1 + 0β-1
• Beta decay: Positron emission


  AXZ → AXZ-1 + 0β+1