Discuss whether psychology can be free from sexism (25)

• Para 1: male perspectives shape psychology

  • P: Psychology has historically been shaped by male perspectives, which suggests it may never be fully free from sexism unless structural and epistemological changes are made.

  • E: Much of early psychology was dominated by male researchers, often reflecting patriarchal norms of the time. Freud’s theory of psychosexual development exemplifies alpha bias, portraying femininity as a failed version of masculinity and women as morally inferior due to their lack of a penis.

  • E: This reflects wider 20th-century social views thst positioned women as passive and deficient. Such perspectives are not just reflections of cultural norms, but also help perpetuate them, meaning psychology both reflects and reinforces sexist ideologies.

  • L: the continued use of outdated theories in textbooks demonstrates how biases persist in education and research.
• Para 2: androcentrism and beta bias 


  • P: Androcentrism and beta bias have also contributed to the invisibility and devaluation of women in psychological research.

  • E: For instance, Kohlberg’s (1968) theory of moral reasoning was based exclusively on male participants but applied universally, overlooking care-based moral reasoning more common among women.

  • E: Gilligan (1982) argued that this created an artificial gender difference, devaluing women’s moral reasoning by comparing it to a male norm. This illustrates how beta bias - ignoring gender differences - can lead to sexism by privileging the male experience as the standard.

  • L: it also reflects the historical context of psychology as a male-dominated discipline in which male norms are taken as objective, reinforcing gender inequality in knowledge production
• Para 3: contemporary psychology struggles with gender bias

  • P: Even contemporary psychology struggles with embedded gender bias, often unintentionally reinforcing stereotypes through research design and interpretation.

  • E: studies such as Moss-Racusin et Al (2012), which found female job applicants rated as less competent than identical male applicants, highlight how sexism persists within academic psychology.

  • E: similarly, biological research often only uses male participants, with researchers excluding females due to hormonal fluctuations - an example of institutional bias. Taylor et al (2000) challenged the universality of the “fight-or-flight” response, arguing that female tend more towards a “tend-and-befriend” response.

  • L: this correction of a beta bias shows that excluding female perspectives from even “objective“ biological studies can distort scientific understanding and misrepresent half the population.
• Para 4: feminist psychology

  • P: feminist psychology offers a promising route to reducing sexism, but achieving complete freedom from it may be unrealistic in a historically male-dominated discipline.

  • E: feminist psychologists like Hare-Mustin and Maracek (1988) have challenged both alpha and beta biases, arguing that both reinforce the marginalisation of women.

  • E: they advocate for methodological reforms and increased representation of women in both research samples and as researchers. However, systemic issues remain: Murphy et al (2014) found that women themselves often internalise male superiority, suggesting that overcoming sexism requires more than just institutional change - it demands a shift in societal attitudes and implicit beliefs.

  • L: as long as these beliefs persist, psychology may never be fully free from sexism, despite ongoing efforts
• Conclusion

  In conclusion, while psychology has made progress through feminist critiques and growing awareness of gender bias, it’s historical roots in male-dominated social and academic structures mean it is unlikely to ever be entirely free from sexism. However, by acknowledging and addressing biases in theory, research, and application, psychology can become more inclusive and representative - moving closer to a discipline that values all perspectives equally