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• Who was Heraclitus?

  An ancient Greek philosopher
• What concept did Heraclitus introduce regarding the world?

  The world is in a state of constant change
• What did Heraclitus mean by saying a person never steps in the same river twice?

  Both the river and the person change
• How did Plato interpret Heraclitus' challenge?

  It challenges the possibility of gaining knowledge
• What conclusion did Plato draw from Heraclitus' challenge?

  True knowledge cannot be gained empirically
• What does Plato suggest we should rely on to gain knowledge?

  A priori reason alone
• How does Aristotle's view differ from Plato's regarding knowledge acquisition?

  Knowledge can be gained from experience
• What does Plato believe about our perception of the world?

  We are trapped in a state of ignorance
• What does Plato call the true reality?

  The world of forms
• What are particulars according to Plato?

  Imperfect representations of forms
• How does Plato illustrate his theory of forms?

  Through the allegory of the cave
• In Plato's allegory of the cave, what do the shadows represent?

  The objects we experience
• What happens when a prisoner escapes the cave in Plato's allegory?

  He sees the real world of forms
• What does Plato argue about experience and knowledge?

  Experience reveals mere shadows of reality
• How does Aristotle criticize Plato's theory of forms?

  It lacks empirical evidence
• What does Aristotle think about the necessity of Plato's forms?

  They are an unnecessary hypothesis
• What is the principle similar to Ockham's razor that Aristotle follows?

  Do not believe unnecessarily complicated explanations
• What are Aristotle's four causes aimed at explaining?

  Knowledge from experience
• What is the form of the Good in Plato's theory?

  The highest form that illuminates all others
• What does understanding the form of the Good enable a philosopher to do?

  Rule as a philosopher king
• What are higher forms according to Plato?

  Aspects of goodness like justice and beauty
• How does Aristotle criticize the form of the Good?

  Ignorance is not the sole cause of immorality
• What does Aristotle argue about the essence of goodness?

  It cannot be unified due to its diversity
• What is the third man argument against Plato's theory of forms?

  It leads to infinite regress of forms
• How does Plato respond to the third man argument?

  Forms cannot partake in anything but themselves
• What is Plato's argument from recollection?

  Knowledge of perfect concepts is innate
• What does Plato conclude about the source of knowledge?

  It must be a priori
• What is anamnesis in Plato's theory?

  The process of re-remembering forms
• How does Hume respond to Plato's idea of perfection?

  We can conceive perfection from imperfection
• What does Aristotle's theory of the four causes explain?

  Change in the universe
• What is the material cause of an object?

  What a thing is made of
• What is the formal cause of an object?

  Its essence or defining characteristic
• What is the efficient cause of an object?

  What brings it into existence
• What is the final cause of an object?

  The end goal or purpose of a thing
• How does Aristotle view the relationship between form and matter?

  They cannot be separated
• What did Francis Bacon criticize about Aristotle's final causation?

  It has no place in empirical science
• How does modern science view purpose in the universe?

  It operates without purpose
• What does modern science suggest about the telos of objects?

  It can be explained by material structure
• How does Aristotle's view of change differ from modern scientific views?

  Aristotle includes purpose in his explanations
• What is the significance of the prime mover in Aristotle's philosophy?

  It is the final cause of the universe