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• What new approach did non-religious philosophers discover in the 20th century to undermine religious belief?

  They denied the meaningfulness of religious language
• Why did Ayer become frustrated with traditional arguments regarding God's existence?

  Neither side could disprove the other
• What does Ayer argue about religious language if it is deemed meaningless?

  It is neither true nor false
• What foundational question must be answered before debating God's existence, according to Ayer?

  Whether religious language is meaningful
• What is the distinction between cognitive and non-cognitive language?

  Cognitive expresses beliefs; non-cognitive expresses feelings
• What term do philosophers use for language that expresses beliefs?

  Cognitive
• What term do philosophers use for language that expresses feelings?

  Non-cognitive
• How do some philosophers view the statement "God exists" in terms of cognitive and non-cognitive language?

  As potentially expressing a non-cognitive feeling
• Who were the philosophers impressed by the power of science that coined the term positivism?

  Comte and Mill
• What does 'Logical' refer to in Logical Positivism?

  Language and clarity through analysis
• What is the verification principle according to Ayer?

  A sentence is meaningful if verifiable
• What does Ayer argue about metaphysical language?

  It is meaningless because it cannot be verified
• How does Ayer differentiate between direct and indirect verification?

  Direct is verifiable by observation; indirect supports unverified statements
• What is weak verification according to Ayer?

  It allows for statements with some evidence of probability
• How does weak verification relate to arguments for God's existence?

  It opens the door for arguments like the teleological argument
• What is Ayer's response to the criticism that verificationism is overly restrictive?

  He strengthened his theory with weak verification
• What does Ayer conclude about his own stance on atheism?

  He is not an atheist
• What is the main criticism of Ayer's verification principle?

  It is self-defeating and cannot be verified
• How does Quine criticize verificationism?

  It fails to explain what meaning actually is
• What is Hick's argument regarding eschatological verification?

  We can verify God after death
• How does Hick illustrate his argument about verification?

  With the parable of the celestial city
• What is the main weakness of Hick's approach?

  We cannot be sure of the afterlife's existence
• What does Ayer claim about the verification principle's role?

  It is a methodological stipulation for empirical meaning
• What does Ayer argue about the tools of empiricism?

  They do not disprove rationalism
• Who proposed the theory of Falsificationism?

  Karl Popper
• What does Falsificationism emphasize in empiricism?

  It operates by falsification, not verification
• What does Flew argue about religious language?

  It fails to meet the requirements for assertions
• How does Flew define making an assertion?

  As denying that the opposite is true
• What does Flew suggest about religious claims?

  They do not allow for falsification
• What is the main criticism of Marxists and Freudians according to the text?

  They seek verifications without falsifiable claims.
• How does empiricism operate according to the text?

  It operates by falsification.
• What is a falsifiable claim?

  A claim that can be proven false.
• What does Antony Flew argue about religious language?

  It fails to meet requirements for assertions.
• What does Flew mean by asserting 'X'?

  It is equivalent to denying 'not X'.
• Why are claims about reality considered falsifiable?

  They could be false if denied claims are true.
• What does Flew suggest about religious believers' ability to falsify their beliefs?

  They cannot say what could prove their belief false.
• What does Flew mean by religious language being cognitive?

  It expresses beliefs about reality.
• What is the significance of the parable of the gardener?

  It illustrates the unfalsifiability of religious belief.
• What does Flew mean by "a death of a thousand qualifications"?

  Religious beliefs become meaningless through endless modifications.
• What question does Flew pose regarding the gardener's existence?

  What difference does it make if the gardener exists?