Part 1: Eastern Question

• The Ottoman Empire in 1815 in the Balkan Peninsula:

  1. Greeks- maritime and commercial interests. They had strong literacy and tradition.
  2. Slavs- Serbs, Croats, Bulgars- These were a kin to the Russians
  3. Rumens- non-slav with a language derived from Latin
  4. Albanians- largely Muslim
• One of the main reasons for the involvement of the Powers in the Eastern Question was the fact that the Ottoman Empire was weak and in the process of decline
• Russia considered themselves the protectorates of the Balkan states and used this as an excuse to intervene and acquire a port in the Mediterranean Sea
• Britain's interest was related to the fear of Russian ambitions toward the Eastern Mediterranean
• Austria's interests

  • Did not want Russian expansion as this would endanger her position
  • Afraid that any form of Balkan nationalism would influence her Empire
  • Searched for expansion in the Balkans to gain a port after losing North Italy (1866)
• Phase 1: 1820 - 1840

  Greek War for Independence

  • In 1820, there was the revival of culture and tradition among the Greeks and this movement was supported by the local Orthodox Church.
  • This led to the foundation of the secret society ' Philike Hetairia', or friendly society to foster these ideals among the Greeks.
  • The first step was to expel the Turks from Greece and in 1821, Hypsilanti the president of the society, raised a revolt.
• • In the Morea, Greek Bishops called out for a revolution. The Morea rose against Turkish rule and the Greeks attacked and killed a number of Turkish inhabitants.
  • As a result, the Turks executed the patriarch of Constantinople and asked the Pasha of Egypt Mehmet Ali to come to his assistance to suppress Greek rebelion in the Morea. His son, Ibrahim Pasha was given the command of the Egyptian force which sailed to the Morea.
• At this point, Russia broke diplomatic relations with Turkey.

  The increasing support of the Russians to the Greeks cause and the Christians in the Balkans forced England and France to intervene and thus maintain the balance of power by keeping Russia out of the Ottoman Empire.
• The 3 powers met in London 1827 to discuss the future of Greece.

  In the Treaty of London, the 3 powers agreed that Greece will become independent but remain the Sultan vassal. The Sultan refused this and Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire in the Black Sea region.

  England and France decided to intervene to support the Greeks to create an independent state.
• A joined fleet made up of British, French and Russian ships sailed to the Morea with the aim to cut the supply route from Egypt.

  Their presence in the Mediterranean brought about the Navarino Incident (1827) in which the combined Turkish-Egyptian fleet was destroyed.

  In 1828, when the Sultan failed to recognise the Greek independence, Russia declared war on Turkey.
• Finally, in the Treaty of Adrianople, Greece became fully independent. England, France and Russian found a solution agreeable to all of them and one which was imposed on the Turks.

  In 1830, under the 3 Powers guarantee, Greece became a constitutional monarchy under the Bavarian Prince Otto.
• The Syrian Question

  Involved Parties: Egypt and Ottoman Empire

  Foreign intervention: France, Russia, England
• Origin of Conflict: related to the Greek War

  • Mehmet Ali demands compensation but was refused
  • France-wanted part of Syria for trading reasons
  • Russia-access to Mediterranean
  • England-did not want France in Syria
  • to stop Russia from gaining access
• Mehmed Ali Pasha of Egypt wanted to expand his territory into Syria. In 1832 he invaded Syria and occupied it. However, the Ottomans did not want to lose any more land so they sent troops against him. After defeating the Egyptian army at Nizip, the two sides signed a peace treaty in 1833. Under its terms, Mehmed Ali retained control of Syria but also had to pay tribute to the Porte.
• However, Mehmed Ali continued to cause problems by refusing to pay the tribute and trying to take over other parts of the empire. This led to another conflict between Egypt and the Ottomans in 1840. Once again, the Europeans got involved as they were worried about the spread of nationalism and the loss of their influence in the Middle East.
• Control of the Straits of the Dardanelles between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean was vital concern to the powers:

  If held by Russia, it would challenge British dominance in Eastern Mediterranean.

  This situation became complicated by the ambition of Mehmet Ali who held french encouragement.

  When the Sultan refused the compensation demanded by Mehmet Ali related to the Greek War for Independence, Egypt declared war on the Ottoman Empire and invaded Syria (1831).
• The Sultan unable to resist the Egyptian forces asks for Russian protection.
• The Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi (1833)

  • Signed between the Ottoman Sultan and Russia and it was secret.
  • Gave a predominant position to Russia in the Straits.
  • Aroused opposition from the other powers especially England.
  • In the meantime, Mehmet Ali was left in control of Syria
• • In 1839, the Sultan invaded Syria but was heavily defeated. France supported Mehmet Ali in the hope of using him to extend French influence in the area.
  • When Egyptian forced moved a 2nd time towards Constantinople, the Powers (England and Austria) put pressure on France to stop her support towards Egypt.
  • Meantime, English forces attack Mehmet Ali in Syria and forces him to retreat into Egypt.
  • The Treaty of Unkiar-Sklessi became null and the Ottoman Empire was saved from collapse.
• The Straits Convention (1841)

  It is a 5 power meeting and it declared the Straits closed to all no-Turkish warships when Turkey was at peace.
• Crimean War (1854-56)

  Fundamental Causes

  The Crimean War happened because of 2 fundamental causes:

  1. The Russian Phobia - Russia believed that Napoplean III had ambitions to expand in Eastern Europe especially the Balkan States.
  2. The British Phobia - England believed that the true intentions of Russia to expand in the Balkan state was to gain access to the Mediterranean and to compete with English trade and commerce there.
• Immediate Causes

  • The Independence of Moldavia and Wallachia
  • The 'Holy Places'
  • Russian demands for territories in Moldavia and Wallachia
• The Independence of Moldavia and Wallachia

  • Fighting broke out in the provinces
  • The Russian government supported the provinces
  • The Russian government put pressure on the Sultan to grant them independence
• 'Holy Places'


  • Napoleon III claimed from the Ottoman Sultan, the protectorate of Catholic monasteries and properties in Palestine including Jerusalem and Betlehem
  • Russia demanded the protectorate of Orthodox monasteries in the Holy land
  • Russia was refused
• Russian demands for territories in Moldavia and Wallachia


  • Russia demanded territories in Moldavia and Wallachia from the Ottoman Sultan
  • Russia declared war on Turkey and invaded the 2 provinces
• Beginning of the war

  • To save guard their interest in the Eastern basin of the Mediterranean, British and French forces joined the Ottoman Empire against Russia.
  • The British fleet blocked Russians in the Blactic and in the Black Sea and invaded the Crimean Peninsula.
• The War

  The Crimean War was between 1854 and 1856.

  The 1st conflict between the Russian and the Turkish fleet was at the Battle of Sinope (Nov 1853).

  The Russian fleet destroyed the Turkish fleet which was anchored near Sinope. During this battle, the Russians made use of new explosives. 11 Ottoman ships were sunk and Russia took over of the Black Sea.
• Diplomatic talks between England, France and Russia over Moldavia and Wallachia failed and thus, France and England put an ultimatum asking Russia to leave the provinces but Russia refused and they declared war on Russia.
• British and French fleets arrive at the Black Sea. Their main aim was to attack and destroy the fortress at Sebastapol which was situated on the Crimean Peninsula. The aim of the allies was to have a quick campaign and so little provisions were made for the winter season.
• • Austria occupied parts of the principalities and as a result, Russia withdrew its forces from there.
  • Ridiculous mistakes were done by the French and British generals and because of this soldiers were killed and the Russians were given enough time to re-enforce Sebatopol.
• The Battle of Balaklava


  Part of the Siege of Sebastopol, fought between the Russians and the allied forces . The Russians failed to capture Balaklava and the Black Sea supply port in Southern Crimea, resulting in a victory for the allies but with many soldiers died.
• The Battle of Inkerman


  The Russians made a second attempt on the allied forces, resulting in fierce fighting and poor communication due to thick fog. The battle was a victory for the allies, but there were high casualties and many injured soldiers sent to hospital at Scutari.
• Some Drawbacks

  i. non-provisions were made for the winter campaign.

  ii. ridiculous mistakes were made eg. provisions sent to the wrong place.

  iii. transport system broke down - stores urgently needed by the troop in the trenches were left rotting for lack of means to carry them 20 miles.

  iv. hospital arrangements were inadequate, hundreds died of simple necessities.

  v. it was a futile war. Campaign focused on capturig the fortress at Sebastopol.
• End of the War

  Czar Nicholas died in 1855. His son was ready to open peace negotiations with the allies. Napoleon III was also ready to bring the war to an end. The cost of war was making him unpopular at home. The power's concert were invited by Napoleon III to Paris to discuss the settlement.
• The Treaty of Paris (1856)

  i. The powers pledged to maintain the integrity of the Ottoman Empire.

  ii. The principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia became semi-independent under the protection of the 5 powers.

  iii. Russia and the Porte ceded the right of keeping warships or fortifications in the Black Sea.

  iv. It was decided that gradually Moldavia and Wallachia will become independent to create the new state of Romania. This came about in 1861.