General Biology

• A Pedigree chart is one of the very important tools in studying human genetics and patterns of inheritance.
• The pedigree chart is similar to a family tree. It uses symbols to show one's family history. It also shows the family relations and the phenotypes of each member.
• Understanding the pedigree chart will help you identify relevant medical facts about certain traits or diseases, as well as family history.
• You can use the pedigree chart to note the genetic disorders that some family members have.
• You can somehow predict if the offspring would have a good chance of inheriting the genetic disorder if one of the parents has the trait.
• Some groups of people in rural Kentucky are affected with a skin disorder called Blue offspring, where the skin appears to be bright blue.
• A Family that has Blue Offspring skin disorder, The Fugate Family of Kentucky.
• Achondroplasia, a form of dwarfism.
• Genetic recombination is the process of recombining genes to produce offspring with traits that are different from those of their parents.
• Genetic Recombination happens naturally through the process of crossing over during Meiosis, or formation of gametes during Meiosis.
• Sex linkage is a special pattern inheritance in which it applies to genes that are located on the sex chromosomes.
• What chromosomes indicates a Male?

  One X and Y chromosomes
• Different kinds of sex-linked genes are found on the X chromosome.
• The Y chromosome is smaller than the X chromosome, and it only contains only few genes.
• Sex-Linked Disorders:

  1. Color Vision Deficiency (CVD)
  2. Hemophilia
  3. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
• Types of Color Vision Deficiency:

  • Deuteranomaly
  • Protanomaly
  • Protanopia
  • Deuteranopia
  • Tritanopia
  • Tritanomaly
  • Achromatopsia
• A ruler who is Hemophiliac.

  Queen Victoria of England
• The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology, is the basic underlying principle in the field of genetics. This explains that DNA codes of RNA, which codes for proteins.
• Components of the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology:

  • Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
  • Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
  • Proteins
• The DNA model proposed by biologists Francis Crick and James Watson in 1953, is a double helix structure that twists spirally, similar to a twisted ladder or a spiral staircase.
• In DNA the two helices may coil either clockwise or counterclockwise.
• In DNA its backbone or building block, called the Nucleotide, is composed of a Phosphate Group, a Sugar, and Nitrogenous Base.
• The Phosphate group is composed of a phosphorus atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms.
• The Sugar Group is called Deoxyribose, the prefix "Deoxy-" means that ribose has lost one oxygen atom.
• The Nitrogenous Bases can be classified according to the number of rings in their structure.
• The Nitrogenous Bases, these bases undergo Complementary base-pairing, wherein each pair should contain a purine and a pyrimidine. Each Nucleotide is formed together by forming hydrogen bonds.
• In DNA, Adenine (A) is paired with Thymine (T), and Guanine (G) is paired with Cytosine (C). Uracil (U) replaces Thymine in RNA.
• Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is a single-stranded molecule that is also composed of nucleotides, with few modifications.
• The sugar Backbone of RNA is Ribose.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA), Translates the genetic code into proteins with the help of ribosomes. It is located in the Nucleus and Cytoplasm.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) helps in transferring amino acids to the correct sequence in the mRNA. It is located in the Cytoplasm.
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Structural component of ribosomes. It is located in the Ribosome.
• Proteins are the final products in the central dogma of molecular biology. They are called the Building Blocks of Life because they have diverse functions in the body.
• DNA codes for Proteins through the process of Transcription and Translation.
• DNA Transcription is the first process wherein the important information in the DNA strand is copied into the m RNA.
• DNA Translation wherein the information sent by the mRNA is analyzed with the help of ribosomes.
• The Ribosomes translate the mRNA code into the proper protein format.
• DNA Replication ensures that each cell has the complete set of DNA molecules during cell division or Mitosis also Meiosis.
• Different enzymes perform several functions in DNA replication. Some of these include unzipping DNA molecules by breaking down the Hydrogen bonds between base parts.
• DNA Replication process is usually described as Semiconservative because half of the DNA is composed of the old template strand and the other half is composed of the newly synthesized strand.