Gender*

• Davis (1961) *

  studied prostitution, suggests that the goals of sexual behaviour in men are not inherently social.

  • suggesting sex is to be only for the purpose of planned reproduction is sexually limiting.
  • prostitution is seen as deviant although serves a purpose, less threatening to family, provides a ‘safe’ outlet for these sexual tensions, has no emotional attachments, is purely transactional.
• Gender - Victimisation *

  the types of crime men and women are victims of differ, eg. 2 women every week are killed by their male partner.
• Hanmer and Saunders (1984) *


  unstructured interviews with women on one street in Leeds, found that 20% of the women had been sexually assaulted and not reported it - easier not to as it happens so often.
• Stanko (2000) *


  over a 24-hour period, domestic violence was reported every second.

  • few leads to arrests, due to a lack of evidence
  • does not include unreported crimes
• Walklate (2006) *


  considered repeat victims

  Why do women stay in abusive relationships?

  • nowhere to go
  • children involved
  • lack of economic independence
• Gender in Crime *

  males commit 80% of all offences.

  ”chivalry thesis” - females less likely to be convicted due to maternal duties and social vulnerability.
• Cohen (1966) - Delinquent boys *


  Boys who feel alienated rebel and turn to gangs to be seen by society.

  • status frustration due to a low social class
  • social pressures causes a want to conform
• Winlow (2001) - ‘Badfellas’ Study

  • ethnographic interviews
  • those who fall into the cycle of criminal activity can never get out, they must maintain status
  • “disposable masculinity“ - traditional male roles are undermined, leading to feelings of inadequacy
• Pollack's gender bias

  • biological factors influence women's criminality, eg. menstruation
  • hormonal changes lead to emotional instability
  • women hide their criminality in their traditional gender roles
• Speed and Burrows (2006) - shop lifting study

  males are prosecuted more that women for shoplifting offenses
• Carlen (1993) - women's imprisonment

  • "class deal", the rewards women receive from working in exchange for their labour
  • "gender deal", the rewards women get from conforming to traditional gender roles within the family - eg. women treated more leniently due to maternal factors
  • when these deals break down, due to abuse, women are more likely to commit crimes
• 'Evil Woman' Theory

  women who commit crimes are judged more harshly than men because they are seen to violate gender norms
• Sue Lees - 'Double Deviance' Theory

  female offenders are punished for deviating from traditional gender roles, alongside being punished for their crimes
• Myra Hindley and Ian Brady

  committed the rapes and murders of 5 children

  • Hindley punished more for deviating from maternal social norms (Evil Woman)
  • Brady did more harm
  • Judges said they would make an example of her
  • the media said she was worse for not stopping it
• Smart (1976) - feminist perspective on crime

  • women are controlled more due to the need to uphold social expectations
  • control of women is exercised through social institutions, eg. education
  • CJS aims to maintain gender roles
  • women are socialised to be compliant
• Chesney - Lind (1997)

  • gender bias in juvenile justice, girls treated more harshly
  • CJS ignores issues faced by women, eg. menstruation
  • girls involved in deviance due to abuse
• Changes to female crime

  • increase in offenses, eg. drugs
  • poverty causes crime
  • crime as a coping mechanism or survival strategy
  • less dark figures of crime
• Hirschi (1969) - Right Realism

  • youths commit crime due to lack of social controls
  • Asian families have stricter controls over youths
  • women prioritise family over crime, they have more to lose if deviant
  • women have no time to commit crimes as are occupied by conventional activities, eg. caregiving
• Messerschmidt (1993)

  • males are more attracted to crime and gang violence because it allows them to express masculinity
  • males believe respect and status validation from other males is important
  • toughness is central to male identity