Mineral recources

• Types of mineral resources

  • Metals and metal ores
  • Industrial minerals
  • Construction materials
• Selected examples of mineral resources

  • Iron
  • Aluminium
  • Copper
  • Rare earth metals
  • Salt (sodium chloride)
  • Rock phosphates
  • Lithium (batteries)
  • Cobalt
  • Cut stone eg granite, limestone
  • Aggregates: sand, gravel, crushed stone
• Geological processes that produced localised concentrations of recoverable mineral deposits

  • Igneous processes
  • Hydrothermal deposition
  • Metamorphic processes
  • Sedimentary processes
• Reserves


  The amount of material that can be economically exploited using existing technology
• Resource


  All the material that could be exploited technically and economically now or in the future
• What is lasky's principle?

  • As the linear purity of a deposit decreases, there is a logarithmic increase in the amount of principle the material that is included
  • The ability to exploit low-grade deposits results in a large increase in the reserves
• The ability to exploit low-grade deposits results in a large increase in the reserves
• Exploratory techniques in order of use

  • Satellite surveys
  • Aerial surveys
  • Seismic surveys
  • Trial digging
• Satellite surveys


  • Low-Earth orbit (LEO) polar orbit
  • Platform for sensors eg gravimetry, IR spectrometry, magnetometry
• Seismic surveys


  • Detect sub-surface features: rock strata shape, depth, density
• Magnetometry


  • Detects force of gravity, which indicates density
• Resistivity


  • Detects ease of electrical conduction
• Trial digging


  • Collection of rock samples for chemical analysis. The only method that detects the presence/absence of the minerals
• Factors affecting mine viability

  • Ore purity and cut-off ore grade (COOG)
  • Chemical form
  • Associated geology: Overburden, hydrology, deposit shape, borrow land
  • Locational factors: Economics, mining methods
• Cut-off ore grade (COOG)


  Minimum purity that can be exploited economically
• Deep mining


  • Shafts and tunnels to access minerals, max depth 3800m, lower environmental impact, more labour intensive
• Open-cast mining


  • Overburden removed to reach mineral deposits beneath, max depth 500m, higher environmental impact, highly mechanised
• Dredging


  • Shallow sea/large rivers, sand, gravel, diamonds, alluvial tin ore, deep sea-polymetallic/manganese nodules (developmental)
• Minerals extracted from seawater

  • Salt (sodium chloride)-chlorine for chemical industry eg PVC plastic
  • Bromine -for pharmaceuticals, pesticides
  • Manganese -for aluminium alloys (aircraft manufacture)
  • Uranium (developmental-for nuclear power
• Strategies to control environmental impacts of mineral exploitation

  • Turbid drainage water control - Sedimentation lagoons
  • Toxic metals in drainage water control - Crushed lime
  • Spoil heaps and leachate neutralisation - Afforestation
  • Dust and Noise - Water sprays and baffle mounds
  • Mine void - Landscaping and re-vegetation
• Turbid drainage water control

  • Sedimentation lagoons
• Toxic metals in drainage water control

  • Increase pH to reduce solubility using crushed limestone
• Spoil heaps and leachate

  • Neutralisation of acid mine drainage, site management, site restoration
• Strategies to secure future mineral supplies

  • Exploratory techniques including remote sensing
  • Bioleaching with acidophilic bacteria
  • Phytomining
• Bioleaching

  • Bacteria oxidise sulfur to sulfuric acid
  • acid leaches metals eg copper, gold, copper, uranium, nickel
  • solutions collected, metals extracted by electrolysis/precipitation
• Phytomining


  • 'Hyperaccumulator' plants absorb metals, plants harvested, incinerated, metals extracted from ash
• Polymetallic/manganese nodules

  • Contain Manganese, cobalt, copper, nickel + others, on deep ocean floor
• Cradle to Cradle design


  • Product 'design for end of life' so materials can be reused, easy dismantling, identifiable composition
• Advantages of recycling

  • Conservation of mineral resources
  • Reduced energy use (of mineral extraction)
  • Reduced mineral extraction/processing impacts
  • Reduced waste disposal impacts
• Difficulties of recycling

  • Identification of materials
  • Separation of mixed materials
  • Reduction in quality
  • Increased transport costs/impacts
  • Collection difficulties
  • Lack of consumer cooperation