peace & j exam

• International society


  The system of relations between sovereign states, governed by norms, rules, and institutions
• Main features of international society

  • Sovereign Equality: All states, regardless of size or power, are considered equal members of the international community
  • Anarchy: There is no overarching authority above states, leading to a decentralized and self-help environment
  • Norms and Rules: States abide by norms and rules that regulate their behavior towards each other, such as diplomatic protocols, treaties, and customary international law
  • Diversity: International society encompasses a diverse range of states with varying ideologies, cultures, and interests
  • Interdependence: States are increasingly interconnected economically, politically, and socially, leading to mutual dependence and shared vulnerabilities
  • Institutions: International institutions such as the United Nations, World Bank, and International Monetary Fund play a role in facilitating cooperation, resolving disputes, and addressing global challenges
• Realist advice for leaders navigating a dangerous and conflictual world (Morgenthau's version of realism)


  • Prioritize National Interest: Leaders should prioritize the national interest above all else, focusing on the security and survival of the state
  • Understand Power Dynamics: Realists emphasize the importance of understanding power dynamics in international relations, recognizing that states must compete for power in an anarchic system
  • Balance of Power: Leaders should strive to maintain a balance of power to prevent the domination of one state over others, which could lead to conflict
  • Prudence in Foreign Policy: Morgenthau emphasizes prudence in foreign policy decision-making, advocating for careful consideration of the consequences of actions and avoidance of unnecessary risks
  • Skepticism of Universal Values: Realists caution against the pursuit of universal moral values in international relations, arguing that such values may not be universally applicable and could endanger state security
• Why liberals are optimistic about the potential for peace

  • Democratic Peace Theory: Liberals argue that democracies are less likely to go to war with each other, leading to a more peaceful international system
  • Institutionalism: Liberals believe that international institutions and cooperation can promote peace by providing mechanisms for conflict resolution and negotiation
  • Interdependence: Economic interdependence between states can create mutual interests and incentives for peaceful cooperation rather than conflict
  • Norms of Nonviolence: Liberals emphasize the importance of shared norms and values, such as human rights and democracy, which contribute to a culture of peace and cooperation
• How cosmopolitanism challenges realist ethics

  • Universal Morality: Cosmopolitans argue for a universal morality that transcends national boundaries, emphasizing the moral obligations of individuals and states towards humanity as a whole
  • Critique of Sovereignty: Cosmopolitans challenge the primacy of state sovereignty, advocating for the protection of individual rights and interests even in the face of state authority
  • Emphasis on Human Rights: Cosmopolitan ethics prioritize human rights and humanitarian concerns, which may conflict with realist notions of national interest and security
  • Global Justice: Cosmopolitans advocate for a more equitable distribution of resources and opportunities on a global scale, challenging the realist focus on power politics and self-interest
• Sources of international law

  • Treaties and Conventions: International law is often codified in treaties and conventions negotiated and ratified by states, establishing binding rules and obligations
  • Customary International Law: Practices and customs that are consistently followed by states over time can become binding norms of international law
  • Judicial Decisions: Decisions of international courts and tribunals, as well as the interpretations of legal scholars, contribute to the development and evolution of international law
  • Teachings of Publicists: The writings and opinions of legal scholars and experts in the field of international law serve as supplementary sources of legal authority and interpretation
• Why Hilary Charlesworth believes a focus on 'crises' is a bad way to protect human rights

  • Reactive rather than Proactive: A focus on crises leads to a reactive approach to human rights, addressing violations after they occur rather than preventing them proactively
  • Limited Scope: Crisis-oriented responses often address immediate humanitarian needs but may neglect underlying structural issues and long-term solutions
  • Neglect of Systemic Injustices: By prioritizing crises, attention is diverted from addressing systemic injustices and root causes of human rights violations
  • Undermines Preventive Measures: A crisis-focused approach may undermine efforts to implement preventive measures and build sustainable mechanisms for human rights protection
• How Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL) challenges dominant Western approaches to peace and justice

  • Critiquing Imperialism: TWAIL highlights the historical role of imperialism in shaping international law and its continued impact on post-colonial societies. It argues that Western legal norms often serve the interests of powerful states at the expense of marginalized and oppressed peoples
  • Emphasizing Contextual Specificity: TWAIL emphasizes the importance of considering the unique historical, cultural, and socio-economic contexts of non-Western states in the development and application of international law. It rejects universalist assumptions that fail to account for diverse experiences and perspectives
  • Advocating for Global Justice: TWAIL advocates for a more equitable and just international legal order that addresses the legacies of colonialism, promotes self-determination, and prioritizes the interests of marginalized communities in the Global South. It challenges Western hegemony and calls for greater representation and participation of non-Western actors in shaping international law and institutions