Men, Masculinity and Health

• Leading causes of death for males of all ages (2020)

  • covid-19
  • heart disease
  • dementia and alzheimer's
  • lung cancer
  • chronic lower respiratory diseases
• Leading causes of death for males age 80+

  • covid-19
  • dementia and alzheimer's disease
  • heart disease
  • stroke
  • chronic lower respiratory disease
• Leading causes of death for males age 65-79

  • heart disease
  • covid-19
  • lung cancer
  • chronic lower respiratory disease
  • dementia and alzheimer's disease
• Leading causes of death for males age 50-64

  • heart disease
  • covid-19
  • liver disease
  • lung cancer
  • colorectal and anal cancer
• Leading causes of death for males age 35-49

  • accidental poisoning
  • suicide and injury/poisoning of undetermined intent
  • heart disease
  • liver disease
  • covid-19
• Leading cause of death for males age 20-34

  • suicide and injury/poisoning of undetermined intent
  • accidental poisoning
  • transport accidents
  • homicide
  • covid-19
• Leading cause of death for females of all ages

  • dementia and alzheimer's disease
  • covid-19
  • heart disease
  • stroke
  • chronic lower respiratory disease
• Leading cause of death for females age 80+

  • dementia and alzheimer's disease
  • covid-19
  • heart disease
  • stroke
  • influenza and pneumonia
• Leading cause of death for females age 65-79

  • covid-19
  • lung cancer
  • heart disease
  • chronic lower respiratory diseases
  • dementia and alzheimer's disease
• Leading cause of death for females age 50-64

  • breast cancer
  • lung cancer
  • covid-19
  • heart disease
  • liver disease
• Leading cause of death for females age 35-49

  • breast cancer
  • liver disease
  • accidental poisoning
  • covid-19
  • suicide and injury/poisoning of undetermined intent
• Leading cause of death for females age 20-34

  • suicide and injury/poisoning of undetermined intent
  • accidental poisoning
  • liver disease
  • covid-19
  • breast cancer
• Leading causes of death and disability among men: noncommunicable diseases, mainly cardiovascular diseases, cancers and respiratory diseases, followed by injuries.
• Men have lower utilisation of health services. Men report better subjective health than women, and less unmet health care needs
• Men participate less in preventive health services. They may also seek medical help at a later stage than women and receive more informal care (i.e. spouse, extended family)
• On average women live longer than men in most countries.
• Social patterning of gender and health is very complex and responsive to social contexts and change
• Gender differences influence health

  • biological differences
  • genes, hormones, different morbidity risks
  • acquired risks
  • risk of disease and risk of accidents in the workplace, due to free-time activities, lifestyle, psychological distress and social environment
  • socially constructed gender norms
• Some risks are behavioural, particularly tobacco and alcohol consumption (globally)
• Mortality due to violence or road injuries is higher in men than women
• Men are still more highly represented in higher-risk occupations such as construction, driving and mining
• Suicide is the biggest cause of death in men younger than 50 years in the UK
• Beliefs, norms and sterotypes of masculinity affect health behaviours
• hegemonic masculinity is the most enduring Western model = ruling or dominant in a political or social context; power

  • idealised form of masculinity
  • implied other types of masculinity: complicit, subordinated and marginalised
  • when related to health: men stoicism, masculine invincibility
• Traditional masculine norms

  • men must avoid any behaviour or characteristic associated with women or femininity
  • masculinity is measured by success, power and receiving the admiration of others
  • manliness is predicated on rationality, toughness and self-reliance
  • man must balance the rationality of the sturdy oak with daring and aggression, and must be willing to take risks in order to become the big wheel
• Western masculinity has four primary areas of maleness:

  • men must act like men: physical aggression is acceptable, whereas acting passive or appearing frail is considered to be a negative male quality
  • males are to be competitive and should demonstrate superiority through success
  • males are detached and impassive often lacking an emotional response
  • males are willing to take on risks and risky behaviour
• Inclusive masculinity theory

  • recent generations of men have become less invested in traditional masculine values and instead espouse a softer, more liberal, and open version of masculinity
• Salutogenic masculinity

  • salutogenesis = approach focusing on factors that support human health and well-being, rather than on factors that cause disease
  • potential of conventional masculine values to produce benefits
  • health-promoting consequences of men's participation in sport and physical activity
• Caring masculinity

  • expansion of emotional expressiveness and care for others
  • fathering: there is often a effort to progress from the distant relationships that men have experienced with their own fathers
  • becoming involved in caring, for example for children, led men to an enriched and expanded repertoire of masculinities
• Hegemonic masculinity

  • can allow for positive relationships and outcomes associated with masculinity ideals and practices
  • as society shifts, the ideal masculinity shifts: new opportunities for men to reconstruct their masculinities
• Men's orientation to health

  • traditionally concern for one's health has not featured centrally in definitions of masculinity
  • being unhealthy could be regarded as a way of enacting hegemonic masculinity
• Contemporary society places a strong importance on health

  • individuals as responsible for their health
  • for men, being unhealthy could be incongruent with masculinity ideals
  • to pursue health promoting practices now is to present oneself as rational, moral and masculine
• Occupational role

  • men as breadwinners, risk takers, roles involving competition and prowess
  • women as homemakers and caretakers
• • men seek medical help at a later stage than women
  • rather than seek help, men will be strong, stoical and often silent in matters relating to health
  • men view help-seeking as not masculine enough
  • men indicated that women found help-seeking easier because of greater contact with health services for themselves and their family
• Factors affecting men's health issues

  • design of health services and the settings in which they are delivered (i.e. health promotion and care where men are living, working etc)
  • health professionals' understanding of norms around masculine roles and behaviour
  • promotion of positive health messages during life transitions: adolescence, becoming a father, retirement. Men more receptive to health messages
  • health promotion initiatives build on positive images and eliminate the use of gender stereotypes