Anatomy and physiology part 1

• Functions of the skeletal system: mineral storage, posture, protection, red blood cell production, Movement, structure
• Bones contain Bone marrow which makes blood cells
• A tendon is a tough yet flexible band of fibrous tissues which join muscle to bone
• Cartilage is a tough elastic fibrous connective tissue which acts as a shock absorbent between bones
• A ligament is a short band of tough and flexible tissue connecting bones together and stabilises the joint
• Leave systems consist of a fulcrum, load, effort
• First class lever system

  
• Second class lever system

  
• Third class lever system

  
• Mechanical coloured advantage is first and second class levers provide man mechanical advantage. This means that a larger load can be moved with smaller amount of effort
• agonist muscles are the muscles that work to create the movement
• Antagonist muscles of a muscles that work in the opposite way of the agonist
• A fixator muscle is a muscle which acts stabiliser and helps the agonist work effectively by stabilising it where it attaches to the bone that it doesn’t move
• a synovial joint is an area where two or more bones meet within a joint capsule and allows a wide range of movement to occur
• Joints:(both synovial)

  Ball and socket joint

  hinge joint
• Abduction is the movement away from the midline of the body
• Adduction is the movement towards the midline of the body
• Circumduction is the circular movement of a joint.
• Extension is the straightening movement around a joint in a limb
• Flexion is a bending movement around a joint in a limb
• Rotation is the turning of a body part around its long axis as if it’s on a pivot
• Bones:

  cranium

  clavicle

  sternum

  Scapula

  ribs

  Vertebrate

  Humorous

  Radius

  ulna

  Pelvis

  Carpals

  Metacarpals

  Phalanges(hands)

  femur

  patella

  fibula

  tibia

  tarsals

  metatarsals

  phalanges (feet)
• Muscles:

  trapezius

  deltoid

  pectorals

  biceps

  triceps

  latissimus dorsi

  abdominals

  gluteals

  quadriceps

  hamstrings

  gastrocnemius
• Axes:

  transverse- side to side through the waist (flexion and extension)

  longitudinal- vertical top to bottom (rotation)

  frontal- front to back through the (abduction, adduction) of the waist
• Planes:

  Frontal- top TO bottom front & back (adduction abduction)

  Transverse- top AND bottom

  Top = superior

  Bottom = inferior

  (rotation)

  Sagittal- top to bottom, side to side, left &right (flexion, extension)
• Arteries - carry blood Away from the heart under high pressure (oxygenated blood)

  thick muscular wall

  small lumeni
• VeINs - carry the blood in/towards the heart under low pressure VALVES stop backflow of blood (usually deoxygenated blood)

  large lumeni

  thinner wall
• capillaries -they are the link between arteries and vein, move blood between them one cell thick, allows gaseous exchange to occur
• SHORT TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE:

  MUSCULAR:

  • muscle temperature increases due to increased blood flow
  • lactate accumulation from lactic acid build up
  • muscle fatigue may occur when exercising intensely

  CV & RESPIRATORY:

  • together more oxygen needed to working muscles
  • breathing rate and depth increase
  • gaseous exchange increase in speed with increase in heart rate

  RESPIRATORY:

  • tidal volume, minute ventilation both increase as a result
  • oxygen debt may occur

  CARDIO - VASCULAR:

  • heart rate, stroke volume, blood pressure, cardiac output all rise
• Cardiovascular effects of long-term exercise


  • Increased stroke volume, both working and at rest and so an increase in cardiac output
  • Quicker recovery rate
  • Decreased blood pressure
  • Increase in the number of red blood cells
  • Increased capillarisation
  • Blood vessels contract more efficiently
• Respiratory effects of long-term exercise


  • Increased aerobic/ lung capacity
  • Increases tidal volume + minute ventilation
  • Stronger diaphragm + intercostal muscles
  • More efficient carbon dioxide removal
  • Increased capillarisation
• Muscular effects of long-term exercise

  • Muscular hypertrophy
  • Increase muscular strength
  • Increase muscular endurance
• Skeletal effects of long-term exercise


  • Tendons and ligaments become stronger, thicker, more elastic
  • Increase in bone density
  • Less likely to suffer osteoporosis