The EU

• Origins of the EU

  1952 - Post war co-operation led France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg to form the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)

  1957 - Same 6 countries signed the Treaty of Rome, creating the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1958

  1965 - After the Treaty of Brussells was signed, the ECSC, EEC and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) were merged creating the European Communities (EC)
• ECSC


  European Coal and Steel Community
• EEC

  European Economic Community
• EC

  European Communities
• Euratom

  European Atomic Energy Community
• Little progress in the 1960s due to President Charles De Gaulle blocking further Supranationalism

  • He also blocked British membership of the EU in 1961 and 1967
• Supranationalism

  The EU is the world's only supranational organisation, meaning that power and authority in certain policy areas is permanently given up by members to a higher level, the EU.
• The UK in the EC

  Joined in 1973 with Ireland and Denmark

  • EU referendum held in 1975 and 67% voted to stay and 33% voted to leave
  • Thatcher voted and campaigned to stay in the European Community in 1975
• Single European Act 1985

  This act signed by Thatcher pledged to create a single European market on goods by 1992

  • Changes
  • Less customs checks at borders
  • Goods that met standards in one country are accepted in all EU countries
  • Unanimity no longer required, Qualified majority voting in the Council of Ministers
• Maastricht Treaty 1992


  This is where the EC becomes the EU

  • 'European Citizenship' born
  • Economic and monetary union by 1999 with the creation of a single currency - the euro

  Britain was given two exemptions in the treaty

  • an opt-out of the single currency
  • an opt-out from a social chapter which included workers rights - however New Labour joined this in 1997
• Treaty of Amsterdam 1997


  It made changes to the Maastricht Treaty, however didn't come into force until 1999

  • Under the treaty, member states agreed to transfer certain powers from national governments to the European Parliament across many areas including legislating on immigration, adopting civil and criminal laws, and enacting foreign and security policy
• Nice Treaty 2001


  This reformed the institutional structure of the EU to withstand eastward expansion

  • Created European security and defence policy
  • This treaty was initially rejected by Irish voters in a referendum in June 2001
  • however this result was reversed in a subsequent referendum held just over a year later
• Lisbon Treaty 2007


  This treaty brought all existing treaties together

  • It increased power of the European Parliament
  • Changed voting system in the Council of Ministers
  • The Lisbon Treaty replaced controversial EU constitution
  • The constitution was rejected in referendums in France, Denmark, the Netherlands and Ireland
  • PM Gordon Brown signed the treaty separately from all other EU leaders
• Intergovernmentalism

  Refers to situations where nation states, in controllable situations, co-operate with one another on matters of common interest
• Main institutions in the EU

  Ex of intergovernmentalism

  • The European Council (heads of government), are political rather than legislative - President: Charles Michel
  • Council of the European Union (Council of ministers) 1 government minister for each member state
• Main institutions in the EU

  Ex of supranational bodies which hold their own authority

  • The European Commission - executive body which proposes legislation, one commissioner from each country - President: Ursula von de Leyen, appointed by European Council
  • The European Parliament - only directly elected body, shares legislative powers with the council of the EU
• Main institutions in the EU

  Judicial branch of the EU, also supranational

  • Court of Justice of the European Union - responsible for upholding EU law
• The European Council

  • 'strategic body'
  • Meeting place of heads of government and foreign ministers
  • also attended by presidents of the European Commission and Council of the EU
  • Political body, not legislative, was separated from the council of Ministers in the Treaty of Lisbon 2007)
  • The Lisbon Treaty created the permanent post of President of the EU council
  • Elected by European Council, QMV over 50%
• Council of the European Union - 'Council of Ministers'

  • Main decision making body of the Eu, the 'upper house'
  • based in Brussells
  • Gov Ministers from 27 member states take key decisions on Eu legislation
  • Place of bargaining and negotiation
  • 3 types of voting outcomes used in the council
  • unanimity - only applies to sensitive issues, here a proposal will fail if one member vetoes it
  • Simple Majority - applies to a limited number of technical decisions
  • Qualified Majority Voting - Applies to most areas of EU activity (based on population)
• Council of the European Union - 'Council of Ministers'

  • Old voting system was used in the council under the Treaty of Nice and it was very confusing
  • In 2014 the Lisbon Treaty replaced the old version of QMV with 'double majority' system
  • Qualified majority is when 55% of member states representing 65% of EU population vote for a proposal
• The European Commission

  • Executive body of the EU in Brussels
  • Initiates and administers legislation
  • Have the sole right to draft legislation
  • One commissioner from each member state
  • the European Commission and its president Ursula von der Leyen are responsible to parliament
  • Nominated by Eu council and agreed by the Council for 5 yr terms
  • Supranational body - acts in general interests of the European Union and independent member states
  • Acts as a civil service for the EU, 23,000 officials employed
  • Leads on trade deals in the world
• European Parliament

  • only directly elected institution
  • First elections 1979 - 5 year intervals
  • Each member state uses a version of PR - turnout is low
  • Seats are allocated according to population, 750 MEPs exist
  • MEPs are seated into broad multi-party groups based around ideology, leader of the party decided who to sit with
  • 3 meeting locations
  • Strasbourg, France
  • Brussels, Belgium
  • Luxembourg
• European Parliament - Composition

  • EPP - Centre Right
  • S&D - Socialists and Democrats
  • RE - Renew Europe (Liberals and Democrats)
  • ID - Identity and Democracy Party (Nationalist/Far-right group from 10 nations)
  • ECR - Conservatives
  • GUE/NGL - Left-Wing Group
  • NI - Non-Inscrits, don't belong to a particular group
• Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)

  • Located in Luxembourg
  • Consists of 3 courts
  • Court of Justice
  • General Court
  • Civil Service Tribunal
  • First court is most significant
  • Has one judge from each member state but cases are only heard by 3 or 5
• Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)


  Functions and Powers

  • Upholds EU Law
  • Decides cases involving member states, EU institutions and individuals
  • National courts can ask the CJEU for a ruling on EU law
  • Decisions have had major impact on role and strength of eu
  • ex, Costa v ENEL (1964) - ruled that community law could not be overridden by national law
  • Cassis de Diron Case (1979) - paved the way for a single European market
• Aims of the EU

  EUs stated aims are:

  • promoting peace and the EU's values
  • establishing a single european market
  • Promote economoc, social and territorial cohesion
  • Establish an area of freedom, security and justice without internal borders
  • combating discrimination and promoting equality
  • Even closer union
• EU values

  • Human dignity
  • freedom
  • Democracy
  • Equality
  • Rule of Law
  • Human Rights
• The Single European Market

  Four Freedoms of a Single European Market

  • Free movement of goods - no border checks and no taxes on goods sold between EU countries
  • Free movement of services for businesses across the EU, all qualifications from one EU state recognised in others
  • Free movement of people - Any EU citizen can seek employment in any other EU state with the same rights
  • Free movement of capital - buying currency and foreign investment, single European currency
• The Single European Market

  Consequences

  • 2.5 million more jobs created
  • GDP increased by 15%
  • EU regulation is costly for small and medium-sized businesses
  • Brain drain - has a negative effect in poorer counties
  • Pressure on infrastructure (schools, housing, health)
• Arguments suggesting the EU has been successful in its aims

  The single market has made the EU one of the world’s most powerful economies and has promoted trade and prosperity

  • The EU has extended workers’ rights over a range of areas.
  • The EU has promoted increasing political union with greater co-operation, and has arguably contributed to the longest period of peace in the continent’s history
  • The EU continues to grow and expand, with many countries wishing to join, which could be said to be a testament to its success
• Arguments that the EU has been successful in its aims

  • Economic difficulties in the Eurozone have undermined confidence in the monetary union
  • The free movement of people has proved controversial (particularly during the refugee crisis in 2015)
  • There has been resistance to increasing political union, with concerns over increasing bureaucracy and the lack of democratic accountability of EU institutions
  • In July 2016, the UK became the first member state to trigger the process of leaving the EU, which may lead to similar demands in other member states such as France
• Is the EU a sovereign nation-state in its own right?

  It is a supranational organisation and members have to accept that EU rules overrule their own

  • sovereign states have flags and anthems - eu flag of Europe and anthem Beethovens' Ode to Joy
  • Europe day is celebrated on 5th May by the European Union, public holiday in Luxembourg
  • Flag and anthem were to be a part of the treaty of Lisbon establishing a constitution for Europe
• Shadow over British politics - 'even closer union'

  The UK joined the EEC under Tory PM Ted Heath, he saw a potential to increase trade and prosperity for the UK

  • Some in the labour party saw this as a 'capitalist club' so they wanted to leave
  • tories led by Thatcher wanted to stay
  • in 1981 Thatcher negotiated a budget rebate and a selection of opt outs from the EU policies and treaties
  • reduced the impact and cost of membership on the UK
  • In 1983 Labours manifesto promised to leave the EEC
• Shadow over British politics - 'Even closer union'

  towards the end of the 80's, Thatcher grew concerned that the EU was becoming more of a supranational state rather than a trading bloc

  • led to shadow chancellor Nigel Lawson and deputy Pm Geoffrey Howe quitting and this essentially caused Thatchers's downfall
  • Splits developed in the tories, especially over the creation of a single currency
• Shadow over British politics - 'even closer union'

  • The UK joined the EEC late, Hoe was concerned that the Uk would be left behind again with less influence in shaping the future of the EEC
  • Thatcher was first challenge by pro EU Mp Michael Heseltine
  • her successor was John Major who was pro EU and pro single currency
• Rising Euroscepticism 1990-1992


  The phrase of 'ever closer union among the peoples of Europe' was a source of discontent for the Conservative government

  • pre-cursor to the single currency was the ERM, European exchange rate mechanism, which kept currency exchange rates within a certain levl
  • John Major wanted to model the UK economy on Germany so he set the UKs interest rates the same as Germany's
  • led to high interest rates and Black Wednesday when the value of the pound collapsed
• Rising Euroscepticism 1993-2010

  The passing of the Maastricht treaty (formal creation of the EU) was a huge problem for major and led indirectly to the formation of UKIP

  • under new labour a more 'pro-EU' stance was taken when Blair signed up to a social chapter that Major had opted out of
  • In 2004 Blair agreed to Eu enlargement which led eastern European states joining and big increases in immigration to the UK
  • This furthered UKIP support in working class areas
  • Blair refrained from joining the euro as Brown was against it, promising a referendum before joining the euro
• The shadow over British politics - 'even closer union'


  The coalition government of 2010-2015 removed the threat of the UK leaving the Eu as the Lib Dems were pro-EU

  • in response to high levels of immigration, much of it from the EU, anti-eu sentiment appeared more common
  • In June 2014 the European Council said it should 'allow those who want to deepen integration to move ahead while respecting the wishes of those who do not' (paraphrased)
• The shadow over British politics - 'ever closer union'

  • David Cameron re-negotiated an exemption for Britain from any commitment to an 'ever closer union'
  • 2015, tories included promise of a referendum on membership in their manifesto if they win
• Aims of the EU currently

  • has lost its 3rd biggest country and second biggest net contributor
  • expansion plans still exist however they are much more limited
  • former president of EU Parliament said in 2017 he wanted a 'united states of Europe by 2025'
  • Nov 2018, Merkel joins Macron calling for EU army to compliment NATO
  • sever backlash from some and its unclear if it will go ahead
  • 2022, populism across Europe threatens unity
  • migration have created disputes between Italy, France and Hungary - 'illiberal' policies
  • 13 Billion euros of funding withheld over refugee protection and gay rights