Limitations of the 1911 Revolution

• The lack of political stability and democracy:

  • As the victory of the Nationalist Party in the 1913 parliamentary election posed a threat to Yuan Shikai's authoritarian rule, he ordered the assassination of the Nationalist Party's leader, Song Jiaoren in 1913.
  • The Nationalist Party was outlawed in 1913.
  • In 1914, Yuan dismissed the parliament and abolished the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China.
• The lack of political stability and democracy:

  • The new constitution in 1914 expanded the powers of the president, allowing him to declare wars, sign treaties and appoint officials without legislative approval.
  • It also allowed the unlimited reappointments of the president.
  • The new constitution made Yuan a de facto emperor.
  • Between 1915 and 1916, Yuan even attempted to restore the monarchy, and proclaimed himself as the Emperor Hongxian.
  • His restoration attempt resulted in the National Protection War.
• The lack of political stability and democracy:

  • In 1917, Zhang Xun attempted to restore Puyi as emperor.
  • All these show that the 1911 Revolution failed to bring about democratic and stable politics in China.
• Warlord era, 1916-28:

  • After Yuan Shikai died in 1916, the Beiyang Army split into several factions.
  • Warlords fought against each other for the control of the Beijing government.
  • For example, Cao Kun became the president of the Beijing government in 1923.
  • Duan Qirui became the president of the Beijing government in 1924.
  • China was plunged into military conflicts and divisions among warlords that lasted over a decade.
  • The warlords imposed authoritarian rule.
• Foreign threats still prevailed:

  • Despite the success of the 1911 Revolution, China was under the threat of imperialism.
  • The unequal treaties signed by the Qing government, such as the Treaty of Nanjing, were not abolished.
  • The foreign powers' sphere of influence in China still existed.
  • They benefitted from extraterritoriality and controlled the tariffs and railways in China.
• Foreign threats still prevailed:

  • In 1915, Japan presented to China the Twenty One Demands, intending to make China a protectorate of Japan.
  • After WWI, the powers transferred the German rights in Shandong to Japan at the Paris Peace Conference.
  • All these show that China was still heavily affected by foreign aggressions.
• Women's status was still low:

  • Women had no rights to vote.
  • In 1914, Yuan Shikai prohibited women from joining political organizations or attending public discussion meetings.
  • In 1918-19, girls comprised of only 5.4% of all the students in elementary schools.
• Poor people's livelihood:

  • China still made very little progress in improving people's lives.
  • The goal of 'equalizing land ownership' was not fulfilled.
• Poor people's livelihood:

  • In order to support the huge military expenditure, the warlords imposed heavy taxes on the people under their control.
  • For example, there were over 30 types of additional taxes in Guangdong in the early 1920s.
• Poor people's livelihood:

  • In some provinces, warlords forced the cultivation of opium as cash crops, thus reducing the acreage devoted to food crops.
  • This resulted in famine.
• Poor people's livelihood:

  • Years of war among warlords added to the hardship of the people.
  • People were frequently left homeless.
• Economic recession:

  • The republican government made little contributions to economic development after the 1911 Revolution.
  • Diminishing government appropriations to maintain irrigation and flood control facilities brought about several disastrous floods.
  • Troops seized draught animals from peasants, not only imposing a direct economic loss, but also reducing the productivity of peasant farming.
  • Railway lines were damaged in warlord fighting, hampering the transport of goods.