sects cults

• types of religious orgs?

  - church

  -sect

  -cult

  -denomination
• how are diff religious orgs categorised?

  rship between age and membership?

  -typically cat by relationship to state, attitudes to wider soc, size, membership, commitment

  
  

  -> the age of the org usually correlates w the membership (older = most members)
• church


  - stable, formal org

  -> normally born into it

  -> hierarchical, bureaucracy

  -> widely accepted beliefs and attitudes

  -> large

  -> claim a monopoly of truth

  -> universalistic (try and include whole of soc)

  -> linked to the state

  -> ideologically conservative

  -> attractive to upper classes

  
  

  ->> eg church of england
• sects


  - org where members join of free will

  -> often led by charismatic leader

  -> believe in the superiority of their group

  -> they are the 'chosen ones' etc

  -> tend to conflict w soc

  -> generally insular

  -> make strong claims of loyalty to their followers

  -> repress individuality eg some members even have to take on a new name

  -> little opp for freedom of thought

  
  

  ->> eg Jehovah's Witnesses, Quakers
• denominations


  - beliefs and values widely accepted

  -> no formal connection w state tho

  -> impose minor restrictions eg no alc but not as demanding as other orgs

  -> hierarchy and bureaucracy less developed

  -> tolerant of others

  
  

  ->> eg methodism
• cults


  - highly individualistic

  -> loose knit

  -> usually small groups with shared interests

  -> led by practitioners who claim 'special knowledge'

  -> like denominations, usually tolerant of others beliefs

  -> do not demand strong committment

  
  

  ->.> eg Scientology
• BRUCE (defining orgs)


  - argues the above defs do not fit todays reality

  -> eg the idea of a church having a religious monopoly only really applied to the catholic church before the prot reform

  -> churches no longer fit w previous defs as they have lost their monopoly and have been reduced to the status of denoms competing w rest
• WALLIS (overview)


  - since 1960's there has been an explosion in the number of new religions and orgs eg the unification church (moonies) =, transcendental mediation etc etc

  -> this has led to attempts to classify them

  -> WALLIS categorises new religious movements into groups based on their relationship w the outside world
• WALLIS (world- rejecting and eg)

  - clearly religious orgs w/ a clear notion of god

  - highly critical of outside world

  -> they expect/ seek radical change

  - members make a sharp break w their former lives to reach salvation

  - live communally w restricted access to outside world

  -> the movement is v controlling (baso brainwashing)

  - conservative moral codes

  
  

  example: MOONIES

  -> believe moon to be the messiah

  -> believes in restoring the world through 'perfect marriage'

  -> strong commitment

  -> moon died in 2012 but movement continued (unconventional)

  -> claimed 3 million followers in 80s but unsure today (suggested to have dropped significantly)
• WALLIS (world -accommodating and eg)

  - breakaways from existing churches/ denoms

  - neither accepts nor rejects world

  - focus on religion instead of worldy matters -> seek to restore purity of religion

  - lead conventional lives

  
  

  EXAMPLE: Neo- Pentecostalism

  
  

  - developed from protestantism or catholicism

  - movement that has crossed denominational boundaries and can be found in Protestantism and Roman Catholicism alike. The movement is characterized by the manifestations in non-Pentecostal churches of what have been traditionally categorized as Pentecostal experiences (still stay in their church instead of moving to pentecostal churches)

  -> believe other christian religions have lost true spirit of christianity

  - charismatic movement

  -> more liberal than trad pentecostalists
• WALLIS (world- affirming and eg)


  - lack some conventional features of religion like collective worship but do access spiritual powers

  -> accept world as it is; optimistic and promise success

  -> non- exclusive and tolerant of other religions but claim to have additional knowledge that enables followers to unlock spiritual powers

  -> they psychologise religion

  -> offer this worldly glorification

  - mainly cults

  -> followers mainly = customers > members

  
  

  EXAMPLE: scientology

  - membership is highly inclusive (want as many followers as possible)

  -> client/ consumer relationship

  -> aim to help members achieve their full potential in terms of the dominant values of soc

  -> had abt 165,000 members in 2015 (quite successful)
• WALLIS eval


  - he himself recognises that there are orgs that may fit into all three categories

  
  

  - STARK AND BAINBRIDGE reject the idea of constructing typologies altogether

  -> instead they argue that we should distinguish between religious orgs based on one criterion - the degree of conflict or tension between the group and wider soc
• STARK AND BAINBDRIGE - sects and cults (overview)

  - identify two types of orgs that are in conflict w wider soc (sects and cults)-sects result from schisms- splits in existing orgs-> they break away from churches usually because of conflicts abt doctrine

  -Cults are new religionssuch as scientology

  
  

  - seesectsas promising other wordly benefits (eg heaven) to those suffering economic deprivation or ethical deprivation (belief that world is in moral decline and join a sect to separate themselves from it)

  - by contrast, cults, tend to offer this - wordly benefits (eg good health) to more prosperous individuals who are suffering psychic dep (people disillusioned with capitalist values etc so turn to sects) and orgasmic dep (health)
• STARK AND BAINBRIDGE (sub-dividing cults)

  - divide based on how organised they are

  ->audience cultsare the least organised and do not involve formal membership or much commitment-> little interaction btwn members-> pp may be through media

  ->client cultsare based on a relationship btwn a consultant and a client and provide services to followers-> in the pats, they were often purveyors of medical miracles, contact w dead etc-> emphasis has now shifted to 'therapies' promising personal fulfillment and self- discovery

  ->cultic movementsare the most organised and demand a higher level of commitment-> movement aims to meet all of its members' religious needs-. eg the moonies-> some client cults became cultic movements for their most enthusiastic members eg of scientology which developed out of the client cult Dianetics-> some well publicized Doomsday cults that predict the end of the world and practice mass suicide may be seen as cultic movements
• TROELSCH / WEBER


  - offered marginality as a reason for growth of some religious movements

  
  

  -> T: sects tend to draw their members from the poor and deprived

  
  

  -> W: sects offer a solution to deprived groups through offering a 'theology of disprivilege' (religious exp for suffering eg u will be rewarded in the future if u maintain faith)

  -> historically, sects have recruited poor eg The Nation Of Islam (black muslims) have recruited the poor

  -> however, since 60's sect-like world- rejecting orgs (eg moonies) have recruited wealthy BUT does not discredit Weber bc maj of them are still outsiders in some way (eg drug takers)
• WALLIS / STARK AND BAINBRIDGE

  - look to relative dep for a reason of NRM growth

  -> RD = subjective, even the 'priv' can feel RD

  ->> eg some MC people may feel spiritually deprived esp in todays consumerist world

  ->> WALLIS claims many turn to sects for a community

  
  

  -> S&B: when mc members of church appear to compromise belief in order to fit into soc, the deprived form sects

  -> deprived may also want to reinforce messages like 'the meek will inherit the earth' while mc wont -> sects

  
  

  ->> world- rejecting sects offer the deprived compensation for the rewards they do not have in this world
• WILSON/ BRUCE


  - social change as a reason for growth of NRM's

  -> W: periods of rapid change disrupt and undermine norms and values -> anomie

  -> those who are most affected by this change -> sects

  ->> eg: the dislocation caused by industrial rev -> birth of methodism which offered clear norms and values

  
  

  -> B: see's the growth of sects / cults today as a response to modernisation & sec.

  -> bruce claims soc = secular, therefore, ppl are not attracted to traditional churches/ strict sects etc bc they demand too much

  ->> instead, ppl prefer cults bc less demanding
• WALLIS & BRUCE - world- rejecting NRM'A


  - WALLIS points to social change from 60's impacting young ppl including the increased time spent in education-> this gave them the freedom from adult responsibilities and enabled acountercultureto develop-> growth of radical political movements offered alt. ideas abt the future-> world - rejecting NRM'S are attractive in this context bc they offer the young a more idealistic life

  
  

  - BRUCE argues it is the failure of the counterculture to change the world that -> disillusioned youth turning to religion
• world - affirming NRM's - BRUCE


  - growth is a response to modernity esp the rationalisation of work

  -> work no longer provides security, meaning, identity

  -> yet, at the same time, we are expected to achieve even tho ppl lack the opportunities

  ->> world aff. NRM's provide both a sense of identity and techniques that promise success in the world
• NIEBUHR


  - the dynamics of sects-> argues sects are world- rejecting orgs that come into existence bc of schisms - splitting from an established church bc of a disagreement-> argues that sects are short- lived and within a gen can die out or compromise w world -> become denom

  - claims this happens because:1)the coming generationsbeing born into sect but lacking commitment2)the protestant ethic effect- sects that practice asceticism -> prosperous and mobile-> such members will be tempted to compromise w the world -> either leave or abandon world - rejecting beliefs3)death of the leader- sects w/ a charismatic leader either collapse w/ leaders death or form more bureaucratic structures which turns them into denominations (moonies are unique in this respect)
• STARK AND BAINBRIDGE - sectarian...

  - sectarian cycle-> see religious orgs as moving through a cycle

  -first stage,schism, there is a tension bwtn needs o deprived and privileged members of a church-> deprived members break away from world- rejecting sect

  -second stageis one of initial fervour w/ charismatic leadership and great tension btwn sect's beliefs and those of wider soc.

  - in thethird stage,denominationalism, the protestant ethic effect and the coolness of the second gen mean the fervour disappears

  -the fourth stage, establishment, sees the sect become more world-accepting and tension w wider soc decreases-> in this stage, further schism results when more zealous or less privileged members break away to found a new sect true to original message
• WILSON - subverting the sectarian cycle

  - not all sects follow pattern stark & bainbridge suggest

  ->conversionistsectssuch as evangelicals whose aim is to convert large numbers of people, are likely to grow rapidly into larger, more formal denoms

  ->aterm-22dventist sectseg Jehovah's witnesses await the 2nd coming of christ-> to be saved, they must be seperate from corruption around them-> this separatism means no compromising and no turning into a denom
• WILSON - NEIBUHR eval

  WILSON rebuttal

  - some sects have survived many gens eg Amish etc instead of becoming denoms

  -> contrary to what Neibuhr says many of them have been successful in socialising their children by keeping them apart from the outer world

  
  

  - however WILSON claims that w glob. it will become increasingly difficult to keep children separate from outside world

  -> HOWEVER on the flip side, glob can also make it easier to recruit into sects bc there are large numbers of the deprived who, through glob, can be reached
• HEELAS


  - new age movements-> similar to cults-> consumer orientated eg through selling crystals etc

  - HEELAS suggests 2 common themes that characterise the new age

  1)self spirituality- New Agers seeking the spiritual are turning away from trad 'external' religions eg church and instead look to themselves to find spirituality

  2)detraditionalism- new agers reject the spiritual authority of external trad sources eg priests-> instead, value personal experience and again, believes spirituality is internal and individual
• DRANE


  -suggests that a shift toward postmodernism explains the appeal of new age movements

  -> Loss of faith in meta narratives eg science claims to be a cognative power which can help us but has facilitated genocides etc - same applies to religions which cause conflict etc

  -> as a result, people are turning to NA beliefs that spirituality is internal
• BRUCE - new age and modernity (individualism)


  - by contrast (to DRANE) bruce claims that New age beliefs are a response tomodernitynot PM-> late modern values = individualism which is a key principle of new age beliefs (idea that spirituality = internal)-> individualism is also a partic important value to those in the 'expressive professions' eg artists so NA beliefs appeal most to them
• BRUCE - new age and modernity (pick and mix)

  - also notes that NA beliefs are often softer versions of more trad religions (eg buddhism)

  -> this explains why NA activities are often audience or client cults since these = less demanding

  
  

  - bruce sees the NA eclecticism or pick and mix spiritual shopping as typical of religion in late modern soc, reflecting the consumerist ethos of cap soc
• HEELAS - new age & modernity

  - New age and modernity linked in 4 ways:

  
  

  1) A source of identity: Modern society individuals have fragmented identities. New age beliefs offer a source of 'authentic' identity

  
  

  2 ) Consumer culture: modern soc creates dissatisfaction through failed promises - The new age offers an alternative way to achieve perfection

  
  

  3) Rapid social change: creates anomie in modern society = New age provides a sense of certainty and truth

  
  

  4) Decline of organised religion: modernity -> sec -> leaves the way open to the new age as an alternative

  -> in USA the NA is strongest where church attendance is lowest
• what stats did DAVIE find in terms of gender and religiosity

  - notes the gender diffs in terms of religious practice, belief, identification, prayer etc

  
  

  -> women are more likely than men to attend church regularly - female churchgoers outnumber men by almost half a mil

  -> more women than men (55% vs 44%) say they have a religion

  -> more women than men (38% vs 26%) say religion is important to them

  -> fewer women (34% vs 54%) then men call themselves atheists
• MILLER AND HOFFMAN


  - suggest 3 reasons for women's higher levels of religiosity

  
  

  1) gender diffs in risk-taking - men are less risk- averse than women

  -> men don't need the certainty religion gives them

  -> men are more willing to gamble that god doesn't exist

  
  

  2) women are socialised to be passive, obedient & caring

  -> women = traditionally socialised to be nurturing caregivers; many religions emphasise the importance of women as carers -> reinforces what they have always been told

  
  

  3) women are closer to birth and death

  -> women feel closer to god bc they are involved in the creation of life through pregnancy etc; the creation of something causes religious reflection and belief

  -> they are also more involved in the management of death - grief support etc -> they think more abt god and the function of human existence
• BRUCE (paid work)


  - argues women's religiosity is a result of their lower levels of involvement in paid work

  -> links this to sec. processes such as rationalisation

  -> over the past 2 centuries, this has driven religion out of the male dom public sphere of work, confining it to the private sphere of family (women more involved)

  -> as religion has become more priv. men's religiosity has declined
• BRUCE - why has religion remained attractive to women

  -> what does WOODHEAD claim from this

  1) religion has a strong affinity w/ values such as caring for others

  
  

  2) men's withdrawal from religion in the last 2 centuries (arg bc of it moving to the priv sphere) has meant that churches etc = more feminised and emphasise female concerns (care etc)

  
  

  -> WOODHEAD: this continues to make religion more attractive to women

  -> the introduction of female priests in COE in 1994 and female bishops in 2015 reinforce this
• women and the new age

  -> what does BRUCE claim

  - women are often associated w/ care, healing etc -> may be attracted to NA beliefs bc of this (they emphasise these traits)

  ->> NA beliefs therefore reinforce 'female ideals' and give them a sense of self-worth / identity reinforcement

  
  

  BRUCE: women's experience w/ child-rearing makes them less aggressive and goal orientated and more cooperative and caring - whereas men wish to achieve, women wish to feel
• WOODHEAD - the individual sphere

  - women in paid work may experience a conflict: between their masc instrumental role in the public sphere of work and their trad expressive role in the priv sphere

  
  

  -> WOODHEAD suggests that NA beliefs are therefore attractive to women bc they appeal to the individual sphere

  -> indiv. sphere is concerned w/ individual autonomy and personal growth

  -> NA beliefs bypass the role conflict -> attractive to women
• BROWN


  - NA religions that emphasise subjective experience rather than external authority attract women bc they (women) wish for autonomy

  -> alternatively, some women may be attracted to fundamentalism bc of its claims of certainty and trad roles
• BRUCE - class differences

  - there are class differences in the types of religion that appeal to women

  -> while NA beliefs which emphasise autonomy, self-development etc are attracted to MC women, WC women are more attracted to ideas that give them a passive role, such as belief in an all powerful god or fatalistic ideas such as superstition, horoscopes etc

  
  

  WHY?

  - fatalism is possibly attributed to wc women bc they have less opportunities than MC women -> do not see change -> believe status is fixed
• what does BRUCE estimate

  -> what do STARK & BAINBRIDGE claim from this

  - BRUCE estimates that there are 2x as many women as men involved in sects

  -> S&B claim this may be because sects offer compensators for the organismic, ethical and social deprived (common among women)

  - organismic deprivation: stems from physical and mental health problems-> women more likely to suffer ill health and thus, seek the healing that sects offer

  - ethical deprivation:women tend to be morally conservative-> they are thus more likely to regard the world as being in moral decline and be attracted to sects which often share this view

  - social deprivation:sects attract poorer groups and women are more likely to be poor
• BRUSCO


  - the Pentecostal gender paradox

  -> since 70's Pen. has grown rapidly partic among the poor

  -> eg in latin america an estimated 13% of the continents pop are now members of pent. churches

  -> pent has proved attractive to women also... yet it is a conservative patriarchal religion

  
  

  - BRUCE explains this is bc P is an ascetic religion

  -> P also insists on a trad gender division of labour that means men must provide

  -> P women can use these ideas to combat a widespread culture of machismo in Latin America where men often spend around 40% of household income on alc, tobacco etc

  -> P men are pressured by chuch community to change their ways and redirect income to family -> women therefore benefit

  ->>> P is not offering western liberation for women bc men retain headship roles but as BRUSCO claims it still liberates women
• ethnicity and religion overview & BRIERLEY

  - although biggest religious group = christians (abt 70% of pop) who are maj white, there are sig numbers of muslims, sikhs etc which are maj EM

  -> there are clear ethnic patterns in religiosity w/ higher than avg rates more most EM

  
  

  -> BRIERLEY found that black people are 2x as likely to attend church than WP

  -> muslims, Hindus and black christians are also more likely than white christians to see their religion as important and to attend worship every week
• MODOOD


  - higher rates of religiosity in EM eval

  -> found some decline in the importance of religion for all EM