British and the French Wars, 1793-1815

• Module 3.1.1 - Introduction

  Overview - War to stop French Republicanism across Europe (including Britain and dominate the continent
• Relative Strengths

  • France - Population x2 of Britain and had beaten Britain before
  • Britain - 2nd most urbanised, More industrialised faster-growing economy, The British treasury was also capable of funding far more military expenditure than the French by selling government stocks and through the strength of the Bank of England. Able to fund its allies to the tune of £50 million (£4.6 million went to Austria alone, for instance).
• On Land and Seas

  • Naval Strength and Defeat in America - The Royal Navy, robust enough to safeguard Britain's maritime trade and secure dominance in the Indian subcontinent, faced challenges from the French navy, which had previously defeated the British in America
  • Military Disparity and Global Presence - Despite the Royal Navy's success in blockading French ports and thwarting invasion attempts in Ireland and Fishguard, the British Army faced a significant manpower disparity by 1815. While the British had around 100,000 troops on the Iberian Peninsula, Napoleon could draw from a pool of 1,000,000 men, showcasing the global scale of the conflict.
• Module 3.1.2 - Success of the British Army in the French Wars due to the role of Wellington


  Wellington's Character - Wellington, the commander of the allied forces in the Peninsular war, was known for his attention to detail, strategic battle locations, and keen eye for slackness among officers. He believed in British navy supply and ensured well-fed and equipped soldiers, fostering trust in his decision-making and the army.
• Prelude to the Peninsular War


  Napoleon's European Campaign (1805-1807) Against Austria, Prussia, and Russia was followed by thwarted plans to invade Britain due to Nelson's victory. Subsequently, he invaded Spain, installing Joseph as the new king, and the French army's move into Portugal in 1807 prompted Britain to take military action against France on land.
• Wellington's Entry, Success, and Political Setback (1808-1809)


  In July 1808, Wellington arrived in Portugal, achieving success by defeating the French at Vimeiro. However, leadership changes and the controversial Convention of Sintra, allowing French troop evacuation, led to political discontent. Wellington's temporary return to Britain and subsequent reinstatement in April 1809 marked a period of initial success and political setbacks. The death of Sir John Moore further fueled political debates on peace with Napoleon.
• Wellington's tactics


  • Utilisation of Iberian Geography and Allies - Wellington leveraged the geography of the Iberian Peninsula and collaborated with local allies including the Portuguese regular army, the Spanish army (though unreliable), and Spanish guerrillas (difficult to control) to bolster his efforts
  • Maintenance of Troop Morale and Readiness - Wellington prioritised the morale and readiness of his troops, ensuring they were prepared for battle in strategic locations and times of his choosing. He often opted for rearguard actions to avoid risking defeat
  • Neutralisation of French Strengths - Wellington employed tactics to neutralise French advantages such as artillery, massed infantry, and mobility with large formations or corps. His infantry utilised single-shot muskets and the more accurate Baker rifle, while positioning themselves advantageously on reverse slopes of hills to minimise exposure to enemy fire
  • Tactical Manoeuvres - Wellington's preferred tactic involved positioning his infantry on reverse slopes, out of sight and protected from enemy cannon fire. This forced the French infantry to advance uphill into devastating volleys from the British infantry and flanking fire from rifle-firing sharpshooters
  • Logistical Advantage and Supply Lines - Wellington benefited from secure supply lines from Lisbon with Royal Navy support, contrasting with the French, who faced logistical challenges due to long supply lines vulnerable to attacks from Spanish guerrillas across rugged terrain.
• Wellington's firepower


  Wellington's army relied heavily on musket and rifle fire delivered by infantry soldiers standing in two lines. Men were drilled to fire concentrated volleys, one line at a time, due to the need to reload after each shot. This tactic was successful against the common French tactic of advancing in broad columns for shock attacks. The mathematics of volley fire versus shock attack favoured the British. In a line formation, soldiers could deliver more firepower compared to soldiers in a column.
• Talavera and Torres Vedras


  In 1809, despite the Spanish guerrillas' strength and a narrow victory at the Battle of Talavera, Wellington's strategic brilliance unfolded with the construction of fortifications at Torres Vedras, securing vital supply lines. Employing a scorched earth policy, the British ensured French deprivation during winter, while Wellington maintained discipline by sending home those neglecting their duties in brothels.
• Fuentes de Onoro and Wellington's Triumph

  In the aftermath of Napoleon's victories over Austria, Prussia, and Russia in 1811, Wellington's campaign in the Peninsula involved the successful siege of Almeida and a strategic battle at Fuentes de Onoro. Despite being unbeaten for three days, Wellington's disciplined soldiers, aided by the Light Division's square formations, ultimately secured victory through bayonet fighting in the village, showcasing his self-belief and strategic acumen.
• Wellington on the offensive

  Context - Wellington was, for the first time, not outnumbered, and therefore adopted a more aggressive approach. Evidence - In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia with 500,000 men, he pulled out veteran troops from Spain to help this vast army.
• Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz


  Wellington attacked border fortresses at Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, involving weeks of siege work and artillery. The aftermath was violent, with soldiers killing, raped, and robbed townspeople. Thomas Picton restored discipline, and Wellington sought to minimise losses (he was seen crying).
• Salamanca and Victoria


  In 1812, Wellington's strategic brilliance was evident as he led a sleep-deprived march, utilising hills for concealment to surprise the French at Salamanca, resulting in a significant victory. French General Foy acknowledged Wellington's mastery of manoeuvres. The success continued in 1813 at Vitoria, where Wellington's dual-front attack cut off the French retreat, decisively ending the war in Spain. In 1814, Wellington further expanded his campaign by invading Southern France.
• The Hundred Days


  In 1814, France was invaded by allies, forcing Napoleon to abdicate. In 1815, he escaped and returned with 600 soldiers. King Louis XVIII fled to England, and Napoleon re-established himself as emperor.
• Wellington takes on Napoleon


  In 1815, Wellington led a coalition army headquartered in Brussels, comprising British, Belgians, Dutch, and Germans. His strategy involved cooperating with the Prussians under Field Marshal Blucher in the east, while uncertainties about the readiness of Russian and Austrian forces influenced his battle plans. Despite withdrawing from earlier engagements at Quatre Bras and Ligny, Wellington claimed to have strategically chosen the site for the decisive Battle of Waterloo from the Brussels road.
• The Battle of Waterloo


  The Battle of Waterloo, a pivotal conflict between Napoleon and Wellington, took place on a four-mile-wide battlefield with key strong points at Hougoumont Chateau, La Haye Sainte farmhouse, and the Farm of Papelotte. Wellington commanded 68,000 men and 156 guns, facing Napoleon's 72,000 and 246. Napoleon, grappling with morning issues, including illness, uphill attacks, and waterlogged ground, delayed his assault until 11 o'clock. The French initially targeted Hougoumont, and while heavy artillery fire caused some Dutch and Belgian units to break, the battle remained in the balance.
• Turning Point at St Helena


  In the Battle of St Helena, Napoleon's static role allowed Ney's cavalry to dominate initially. However, after Napoleon fell ill and left the field, Wellington seized the opportunity to move his troops out of artillery range. Ney, misinterpreting this as a retreat, sent all French cavalry in pursuit. The allied infantry formed squares, decimating the French horsemen. Napoleon returned to find his cavalry defeated, with Prussian reinforcements entering the battle. Despite Marshal Grouchy's failure to prevent the Prussian arrival, Napoleon's attempt to use the elite Guards against the British was thwarted. The French army disintegrated, leading to numerous surrenders and a decisive turning point in the battle.
• Wellington, the General


  Wellington returned to Britain as a hero and politician, changing the British soldier's image. After Waterloo, his "scum" gained respect. He had an iron constitution and trusted officers like Somerset, Uxbridge, and De Lancey. He requested his Peninsular Officers back before Waterloo.
• Module 3.1.3 - Role of Nelson in naval war against france

  The British Navy's Importance and Expansion - The British navy played a crucial role in protecting Britain against invasion, safeguarding overseas trade, and securing colonies, relying on a fleet of well-maintained ships for both trade and battle. Despite shortcomings revealed during the American War of Independence, the navy significantly expanded from 135 ships and 133 frigates in 1792 to 202 ships and 277 frigates by 1802, accompanied by a surge in the number of sailors from 16,000 to 135,000.
• Nelson, private and public


  Wellington was initially unimpressed by Nelson's demeanour, finding him vain and foolish when they first met in September 1805. However, after Nelson learned Wellington's identity and engaged him in a discussion about world affairs, Wellington was impressed by his changed manner. Despite both men experiencing unhappy marriages, Nelson's relationship with Emma Hamilton and his concern for her well-being after his death contrasted with Wellington's own marital history.
• Nelson's Rise to Prominence

  • Career Highlights and Leadership Style - Nelson's naval career saw significant milestones, including commanding a squadron in the Mediterranean in 1793 and achieving fame for his boldness and gunnery skills during the Battle of Cape St Vincent in 1797. He trained his crews for fast gunnery and led boarding parties into hand-to-hand combat, earning loyalty from sailors who hoped for prize money from captured enemy ships
  • Battle of Cape St Vincent and Promotion - Nelson's leadership during the Battle of Cape St Vincent, where he took his ship into close-quarters combat despite severe damage, led to the capture of two Spanish warships, increased his reputation, and earned him promotion to rear-admiral
  • Personal Characteristics and Challenges - Nelson's charisma, aggressive thinking, and frustration with inactivity were noted traits. Despite losing his right eye in 1794 and later having his right arm amputated after being shot in a Spanish fort attack in 1797, he
• Nelson and Wellington


  First met in September 1805, Wellington was impressed by Nelson's changed manner after engaging in a discussion about world affairs
• Nelson and Wellington


  Despite both experiencing unhappy marriages, Nelson's relationship with Emma Hamilton and his concern for her well-being after his death contrasted with Wellington's own marital history
• Nelson


  • Commanded a squadron in the Mediterranean in 1793
  • Achieved fame for his boldness and gunnery skills during the Battle of Cape St Vincent in 1797
  • Trained his crews for fast gunnery and led boarding parties into hand-to-hand combat
  • Earned loyalty from sailors who hoped for prize money from captured enemy ships
• Nelson's leadership during the Battle of Cape St Vincent


  • Took his ship into close-quarters combat despite severe damage
  • Led to the capture of two Spanish warships
  • Increased his reputation
  • Earned him promotion to rear-admiral
• Nelson


  • Charismatic
  • Aggressive thinking
  • Frustrated with inactivity
  • Resilient and determined in the face of adversity despite losing his right eye in 1794 and later having his right arm amputated
• Napoleon's ambitions for English invasion and European dominance were challenged by the formidable British navy, capable of resisting French trade embargoes and disrupting maritime operations
• Recognizing British naval strength, even as a general with limited naval knowledge, Napoleon faced hindrances to his expansive plans
• The Mediterranean emerged as a pivotal battleground, with Nelson countering Napoleon's Egyptian expedition, decisively defeating the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile and stranding most of Napoleon's army
• Nelson's victory at the Battle of the Nile elevated him to hero status, securing a baron title and an annual pension of £2,000
• Nelson


  • Prioritised crew welfare and equitable distribution of prize money, fostering teamwork and a sense of duty among his sailors, earning him the title of Britain's most famous sailor and a symbol of resistance against Napoleon
• In 1801, Nelson led a successful attack on Copenhagen, deterring Denmark from an alliance with potential adversaries
• The Peace of Amiens briefly eased tensions but collapsed due to French occupation of Naples and refusal to agree on a trade deal, leading Britain to declare war in 1803
• Nelson, commanding the Mediterranean fleet, worked tirelessly to keep the French fleet in port, while the British navy patrolled the Channel and blocked French ports, culminating in Spain joining the war as France's ally in 1804
• HMS Victory


  • Played a pivotal role in the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, showcasing the impact of innovations like coppering, which improved the speed and durability of British warships
• Nelson's naval tactics


  • Mastery of close-range gunnery, breaking the enemy's line, and employing devastating broadsides with various shot types, such as iron-balls and chain shot, underscored the significance of naval technology and tactics
• British sailors, appreciating French shipbuilding, repurposed captured French ships for repair and integration into the British fleet
• Naval strategy


  Involved intelligence and guesswork, utilising fast frigates and cruisers to monitor enemy movements, while sailing ships depended on wind and predictable actions
• Captains


  Faced challenges maintaining crew health with poor diets causing scurvy during lengthy voyages
• Admiral Nelson, demonstrating care for his men, provided onions as a preventive measure against diseases