The Crimean War 1854-6

• Crimean War


  Conflict between Russia and the Ottomans in the southern Danube region, 1854-56
• Outbreak of the Crimean War

  • Russia sought territorial gains from the weakened Ottoman Empire and aimed to secure access to the Mediterranean
  • British and French intervened in 1854 after the Russian navy sank the Ottoman fleet in the Black Sea
  • Ensuing battles took place in the Crimea, involving British and French forces against the Russians
• British army


  Infantry firing muskets and cavalry using swords, uniforms similar to Waterloo, firearms similar
• French military technology


  • Introduced a powerful French Minie rifle, muzzle loading, with three times the range of most Russian muskets and a Minie ball for serious wounds
• State of the British military


  • Unaccustomed to major European battles since Waterloo, encountered difficulties with outdated supply systems and slow transport
  • Navy faced modernisation challenges, relying on a mix of wooden steamers and sailing vessels
• Support service shortcomings


  • Did not change significantly since the French wars, still largely reliant on civilian contractors
  • Lack of professionalism, inability to communicate and cooperate, inadequacy of medical treatment, shortage of food and shelter for soldiers
• Battle of the Alma, 20 September 1854


  1. British army expedition, led by Lord Raglan, arrived in Varna, Bulgaria

  2. Allied armies landed at Eupatoria without opposition and engaged the Russian forces

  3. British objective was a Russian Earthwork called the "Great Redoubt"

  4. Russians retreated after losing their guns

  5. Shortcomings in allied leadership and organisation revealed, leading to disagreements on the strategy for attacking Sevastopol
• Battle of Balaklava, 25 October 1854


  1. Allies' caution allowed Menshikov to move the Russian army to occupy the Causeway Heights, overlooking Balaclava

  2. Allies recalled troops, but the Russian army might have taken Balaclava had Menshikov been more cautious

  3. Balaclava's fighting led to famous actions like the Stand of the 93rd Foot
• The 'Thin Red Line'


  93rd Highlanders, organised in an unconventional two-row formation, halted the Russian advance with musket volleys, showcasing resilience and heroism
• The Charge of the Heavy Brigade

  1. General Lord Lucan ordered the British Cavalry Division to support the Highlanders

  2. The 800 Heavy Brigade, led by General Scarlett, charged the Russians uphill

  3. Despite the Russians' resistance, the British cavalry broke through, and British horse artillery opened fire on the Russian rear, causing the Russians to retreat
• The Charge of the Light Brigade

  1. Lord Raglan directed Lord Lucan to prevent the removal of allied guns by Russian troops

  2. The Light Brigade, led by Lord Cardigan, received a vague order to advance, leading to confusion

  3. Despite Cardigan seeking clarification, Lucan insisted on following Raglan's orders, resulting in the ill-fated charge against well-defended Russian artillery at the end of the North Valley

  4. Lack of clear communication contributed to the tragic outcome
• Miscommunication and Vague Orders

  • Lord Raglan hastily ordered Lord Lucan to charge at the Russian guns without clear instructions
  • Raglan's intention was for Lucan to reclaim British guns taken by the Russians on Causeway Heights, but the orders were poorly explained, and Captain Nolan failed to clarify them adequately
• Tragic Outcome and Heroic Resilience

  • Despite the confusion, Lucan led the Brigade down a valley where they were surrounded by Russian forces attacking from elevated positions
  • The charge resulted in a disastrous military blunder with significant casualties, showcasing both the tragedy and heroism of the event
• The Siege of Sevastopol, September 1854 to September 1855


  1. Allies imposed a siege on Sevastopol, facing Russian resistance

  2. The Battle of Inkerman in November 1854 resulted in a British victory

  3. Harsh Crimean winter led to camp destruction, supply shortages, and suffering

  4. Spring 1855 saw improvements with fresh supplies, a new railway, and troop reinforcements

  5. Allies attacked Sevastopol, targeting key fortifications

  6. Trench warfare and artillery played a crucial role

  7. The French took the Mamelon fort in June 1855

  8. The Battle of Tchernaya in August 1855 resulted in a Russian repulse

  9. Allies captured Sevastopol in September, leading to the end of the war
• Lord Raglan


  • Deployed infantry and cavalry in various battles
  • Different approach in Crimea compared to his experience in the Peninsular War
  • Storm in November 1854 caused delays and supply challenges
  • Retreat to Balaclava for resupply was not sanctioned, contributing to supply issues
• Conduct of the War


  • Wellington's influence seen in Raglan's conduct
  • Old methods persisted in infantry training with modern rifles
  • Organisational failings, inadequate supplies, and wretched conditions
  • Florence Nightingale and the Sanitary Commission highlighted campaign shortcomings
  • The McNeill-Tulloch Report and subsequent investigations drew public attention to issues
• Major Hospitals at Scutari

  • Capacity for 6,000 men, but inadequate medical assistants (4/100)
  • Lack of washing facilities contributed to health issues
  • High mortality due to diseases like typhus, typhoid, dysentery, and cholera
  • 1,761 of 18,085 British died in action; the rest from disease/wounds
  • Infrequent use of anaesthesia
  • No treatment available for septicaemia
• Florence Nightingale


  • Trained as a nurse, Nightingale led a team to Scutari in 1854
  • Addressed issues like water supply, cleanliness, and organisation
  • Instrumental in publicising poor medical care during the Crimean War
• Scutari Problems and Improvements

  • Scutari hospital faced issues with priorities, staffing, and supplies
  • Nightingale reorganised food, cleaned wards, and improved conditions
• Sanitary Commission


  • Identified ventilation and sanitation problems at Scutari
  • Structural changes led to a significant drop in mortality rates
• Nightingale's Legacy


  • Collected data, introduced improvements, and bought supplies independently
  • Criticised in the 20th century, her impact on cleanliness and care remains debated
  • The Florence Nightingale Foundation continues to promote her ideas
• Mary Seacole


  • Jamaican-Scottish nurse, offered services during the Crimean War
  • Independent and rejected in London, she set up the British Hotel in Crimea
  • Nursed soldiers, provided food, and visited battlefields with first-aid supplies
• British Hotel and Seacole's Popularity


  • The British Hotel was popular for quality food, shelter, and supplies
  • Seacole's folk-medicine experience aided in treating the sick and wounded
  • She became the first woman on the allied side to enter Sevastopol after the Russian withdrawal
• Comparison of Nightingale and Seacole


  • Nightingale's fame and influence continued post-Crimea, contributing to nursing reforms
  • Seacole's contributions were recognized in her day but overshadowed in historical accounts
  • Both women played pivotal roles in nursing and the Crimean War
• Nightingale's Legacy and Impact

  • "Angel of the Crimea," Nightingale advocated for nursing reforms and contributed to health commissions
  • After her return, Nightingale continued campaigning and authored "Notes on Nursing"
  • Her use of patient-mortality statistics was recognized by the Royal Statistical Society
• Overall Contributions and Legacy

  • Nightingale and Seacole both significantly impacted nursing and medical care during the Crimean War
  • Nightingale's legacy continued with nursing reforms and recognition in the 20th century
  • Seacole's contributions were rediscovered, and she gained recognition for her role in nursing history
• Introduction of Photo Coverage

  • The Crimean War was the first war with photo coverage, altering how wars were perceived
  • Wars on foreign soil were now accessible to the British public
• Newspaper Reports and Literacy Rates

  • Before 1800, reading was a minority skill, but literacy rates increased
  • Church Sunday schools, charity schools, and factory laws contributed to rising literacy
  • By 1850, over half of Britain's population could read and write, leading to a growing demand for reading material
• Growth of Reading Culture

  • Charles Dickens and novelists gained broad appeal
  • Newspapers and magazines were widely read
• Photo-journalism and Communications


  • Photography in the 1830s and 1840s transformed information communication
  • Professional photographers entered battle zones, providing new perspectives
  • Improved communications and the 1840s "railway mania" led to the world's first steam rail network
• New Technology and Improved Communication

  • Railways and the electric telegraph facilitated quicker transmission of war reports
  • Telegraph allowed brief information transmission in hours
• Roger Fenton's Photography


  • Fenton's Role and Brief: Encouraged by Prince Albert and the Duke of Newcastle, Fenton aimed to counter negative war publicity
  • Nature of Fenton's Photographs: Focused on officers, often staging shots, primitive cameras limited capturing live action
  • Timing of Fenton's Visit: Arrived in Crimea in March 1855, missed major battles, and left in June
  • Impact of Fenton's Photographs: Altered public perception, fostered empathy and raised questions about war management and purpose
• William Russell's Reporting


  • The Times' reporter, William Howard Russell, criticised army hierarchy and medical facilities
  • The Times initiated a 'Crimea fund' in response to Russell's reports
• Influence of The Times

  • Russell's reports led to a political crisis and Lord Aberdeen's resignation
  • The Times campaigns raised funds for casualties and Mary Seacole
  • The Victoria Cross was instigated in 1856 after The Times' campaign for official recognition for bravery
• Political Change and Press Power

  • Press criticism of generals led to public demand for scapegoats
  • Press attacks triggered questions in the House of Commons and contributed to political change
  • Post-war politicians recognized the need to manage the press and government information effectively
• Impact of War Reporters

  • War reporters engaged the public, highlighting the conditions of ordinary soldiers
  • Russell's reports and The Times' campaigns contributed to reforms in the officer class and army organisation
• Disorganisation in the British Army

  • Supply and Transportation Problems: Inadequate medical supplies, shortage of wagons, and housing issues
  • Organisational Challenges: Overlapping structures and lack of coordination in the army's 11 different departments
  • Leadership Issues: Leadership criticised for nepotism and incompetence, reputation of senior members tarnished by press campaigns
• Reforms and Impact on Nursing

  • Impact on Nursing: Florence Nightingale's work established nursing as a respectable profession, "Notes on Nursing" (1860) widely read, and nurse training schools established
  • Army and Civil Service Reforms: Victoria Cross established in 1856, embodying a more meritocratic approach, the McNeill-Tulloch report led to army reforms, the Civil Service adopted competitive examination under Gladstone's administration