Theories of religion topic 1

• What is religion- substantive definitions

  Focuses on what religion is, Webber defines religion as a belief in a superior/supernatural power that’s above nature, and can’t be explained scientifically

  • Substantive definitions are exclusive and draw clear line between religion and non-religious beliefs, to be a religion, a set of beliefs must include a belief of God or the supernatural
• What is religion– exclusive definition

  concerned with the context of religion, this deals with a ‘supra-human’ /Supernatural power, interfering

  • bruce defines religion as beliefs, actions and institutions, which assumes the existence of supernatural entities with powers of action or in person, power, or possessed of moral purpose
• what is religion- exclusive definition, evaluation

  Defining religion in this way Leaves, no room for beliefs and practices which perform similar functions to religion, but don’t involve belief in God, e.g. Buddhism, based on western monotheistic beliefs
• What is religion- functional definitions

  Stress how religions contribute in society in terms of its social and psychological function forms for individual/societies

  • Durkheim, the key function of religion is to strengthen social solidarity and integration
  • yinger religion, performs functions for individuals, e.g. answering questions about the meaning of life and what happens when we die

  Evaluation

  + Inclusive, allowing us to include a wide range of beliefs and practices which perform functions

  — however, just cus institution helps integrate people into groups it don’t make a religion
• What is religion– constructionist definitions?

  Social constructionists take an interpretivist approach, not possible to produce a single universal definition of religion to cover all cases, since in reality, different individuals and groups mean very different things by religion

  • social constructionists are interested in how definitions are constructive, challenged and fought over
  • Aldridge shows how for his followers Scientology is a religion
• Functionalist theories

  Societies like an organism with basic needs that must be met to survive societies. Basic need is for social order and solidarity which is made possible by a value consensus

  • each institution in society, perform certain functions, religion is an institution with many functions, e.g. social harmony, emotional support, provides guides on how to act
  • durkheim argues religions function is to create a collective conscience and maintain social order
• Functionalist theories- scared and profane

  Durkheim an interested in belief of gods/spirits, but in a fundamental difference between the scared, and the profane found in all religions. The sacred are things set apart, apart that inspire, feelings of awe, fear, and wonder, and are surrounded by taboo, the profane, with things of no special significance, ordinary or mundane.
• Functionalist theories- the sacred and profane

  Religion is never simply a set of beliefs. It also involves definite rituals in relation to the sacred, the fact that sacred things about such powerful feelings suggest to Durkheim it’s because the symbol represents something of great power which can only be society itself as society is the only thing powerful enough to invoke such feelings
• Functionalist theories- collective conscience

  Durkheim- sacred symbols represents societies, collective conscience, which is the shared norms, values, belief and knowledge that makes social life and cooperation between individuals as possible, despite sacred items varying from religion, they all perform this function

  • Regular collective worship and shared ritual, reinforce collective conscience and maintain social integration as people are reaffirming their support for shared values and beliefs, and remind them that they are part of a single community, which they owe loyalty to
• Functionalist theories- totemism

  Studied the Arunta clan (clan is simplest form of religion) in Aus, + found the clan comes together periodically to worship a sacred totem, the totem is clans emblem, eg animal/plant that symbolises clans, origins, and identities, shared rituals of the totem, reinforces groups, solidarity

  • Durkheim argued when a group will wash, ping totem they’re actually washing society, they sacred symbol represents societies, collective conscience, regular worship makes people feel their part of something greater than ourselves, religion, strengthen us to life challenges
• Functionalist theories- cognitive functions of religion

  Durkheim sees religion as source of our intellectual/cognitive capacities in order to share our thoughts we must use the same categories as others. He argues religion is the origin of the concepts/categories we need for thinking/communicating

  • in the book primitive classification Durk + maggs argue religion provides us with basic categories such as time, space, causation eg ideas about bringing the world into being at the beginning of time, smiliarly the division of tribes into clans gives humans, their first notion of classification
• Functionalist theories-evaluation

  Durkheims theory may apply better to small scale societies with a single religion because it’s harder to apply to large scale communities

  • His ideas can’t be applied to contemporary society because increasing diversity has fragmented the collective conscience. Therefore, there’s no longer a single shared volume system for religion to reinforce.
  • He only studied a small number of groups
• Functionalist theories-psychological functions

  Malinowski agrees with Durkheim that religion promotes solidarity, however, he argues religion, promotes solidarity by performing psychological functions, helping people to cope with emotional distress. If un-dealt with this distress would break down the solidarity.

  • He identifies two types of situation in which religion performs this role by studying Tobriland islanders of the Western Pacific, one where the outcome is important, but uncontrollable and uncertain
  • lagoon, fishing, safe and uses predictable method of poisoning, no ritual needed
• Functionalist theories- psychological functions

  Malinowski

  • Ocean, fishing, dangerous, uncertain, rituals to ensure safety, gives people, a sense of control, and confidence to undertake hazardous tasks, and reinforces solidarity
  • At times of life crisis Events, such as birth, marriage and death, mark, major disruptive changes in social groups, religion helps minimise disruption e.g. funeral, rituals, reinforce feelings of solidarity amongst survivors
  • Malinowski argues death, is the main reason for the existence of religious belief
• Functionalist theories- Parsons, values and meanings

  Agreed with Malinowski in seeing that religion helps individuals cope with unforeseen events, but also suggested that religion has two other key functions

  1. Create and legitimises society central values, the Protestant work ethic and American dream, place, great emphasis on individualism, meritocracy and self-discipline, which serves to promote value, consensus and social stability
  2. primary source of meaning, answers the ultimate questions about human conditions, eg why kids die young in doing so religion enables people to maintain stability
• Functionalist theories- Parsons, values and meanings

  Parson emphasises the role of religion in providing an underpinning, the core values of any culture and the social norms which regulate peoples behaviour

  • The set of moral beliefs and values in religion may become so deeply ingrained to socialisation that may have an effect on the everyday behaviour of believers and nonbelievers
• Functionalist theories- Parsons, values and meanings

  For example if social rules about stealing and adultery were broken. Most individuals will experience guilty conscience about doing something wrong. This is a powerful socialising and controlling influence over the individual.

  • However, many sociologists argue that Western society are becoming more secular and as such is unlikely that religion, still axis and agent of social control, as it may have done in the past
  • Today people are dissuaded from committing acts by the media or heavy use of surveillance technology
• Functionalist theories – civil religion

  Bellah is interested in how religion unifies society, especially a multifaith society like America

  • civil religion, unifies American society
  • Civil religion is a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to the society itself in America, this would be the American way of life
  • Bella argues civil religion, integrates society in a way that America’s many different churches and denominations can’t
  • Well, none of these can claim the loyalty of all Americas, civil religion can
• functionalist theories- civil religion p2

  Bellah argues a belief in God isn’t always requirement for a religion, as long as the beliefs perform the same function

  • Americanism perform the same functions that Dirheim identified and promotes social cohesion, order, stability and prevents radical change
  • america’s civil religion involves the loyalty to the state, and a belief in God, both of which are equated to being a true American
  • It’s expressed in various rituals, symbols and beliefs, such as the Pledge of allegiance to the flag, and singing the National anthem
• functionalist theories- civil religion


  While the USA is a clearest example of this, some sociologists have pointed to how strong association with a royal family reveals a similar sort of religion, e.g. the public morning, the death of Princess Diana in the UK

  • Beckford however, it’s doubtful these occasions compensate for the U.K.’s deep, social division and high rate of religious diversity and indifference
  • But some would even argue that describing Americanism, as a religion, stretches the definition of religion, as too far as it does not require a supernatural or divine element
• Marxist, theories of religion- Marxist model of society


  According to Marxist, in all non-communist societies, the ruling class owns the means of production, and from their wealth, derive power, which allows them to control the super structures of society

  • The superstructure is the non-economic parts of society e.g. religion
  • From this point of view, religion is used to promote the interest of the ruling class by being used to support ruling class ideology
  • This keeps ruling class in power by discouraging the working classroom, realising they’re being exploited and overthrowing ruling class power
• Marxist theories- Marx 


  Marx argues, religion = institution maintaining capitalist rule

  • He argues it’s an instrument of domination and oppression that keeps working class in place
• Marxist theories- Lenin

  Argues religion is a ‘spiritual gin’, an intoxicant given out to the masses by the ruling class to keep them in their place

  • He argues the rule in class, uses religion as a mystical fog that absorbs reality, and prevents them from overthrowing those in power
• Marxist theories- religion as opium of the masses


  Marx described religion as opium of the masses, by this, he meant that he saw religion as being like a drug that distort reality and helps individuals deal with pain

  • Religion, promises, eternal bliss in life after death, Christianity, promises, saturation from bondage and misery in heaven
  • This makes life on earth more bearable, looking forward to heaven
  • Religion also states that peoples life course is down to gods will
• Marxist theories- acting like opium


  Religion offers Hope of supernatural intervention to solve problems on earth, e.g. Jehovah’s Witnesses encourage people to accept their position in society and not act to change it

  • Religion provides a justification and explanation for inequality e.g. Indian caste system, people obey this as they believe in reincarnation and will be reborn at a higher level
• Marxist theories – acting like opium

  However religion can only perform the role mark this argue if people believe and religion has some instrumental power, neither of which is true of the majority of people in Britain and most contemporary western societies

  • Therefore, religion, justifies and legitimises the existing social order e.g. in mediaeval Europe, kings and Queens ruled by divine right they got their legitimacy from God
  • Individuals were persuaded to accept their fate, as it was divinely ordained, and therefore something they couldn’t challenge
• Marxist theories- religion and social change


  Marx believed on the advent of communism, religion would no longer be necessary since the means of production would be shared communally, and no one would own the means of production, meaning there would be no social classes

  • Without social classes, there would be no need for religion as its sole purpose was to legitimise, ruling class, power, religion, with therefore disappear
  • However, communist countries such as Cuba now, except the religion will coexist with communism, and they will no longer attempt to suppress it
• Marxist theories – religion as ideology


  Ideology is a belief system that distort people, perception of reality, leading people in a false direction, and offers hope, and solutions that are an illusion in a way that serves the interest of the ruling class

  • Religion helps keep the wc in a state of false conscience, a distorted view to prevent workers rebelling against rulling class
  • marx- religion operates as an ideological weapon used by ruling class, justify suffering of the poor as something. Inevitable/God-given.
• Marxist theories – religion as an ideology


  Religion misleads the poor into believing their suffering was virtuous, and they will be favoured in the afterlife

  • lenin argues this in slaves working class into believing they have a decent life
  • lenin- religion used by the ruling class to manipulate working class into creating a fog obscuring reality and making them believe there’s no way out
• Marxist theories, – alienation and religion


  Marx argues religion is the product of alienation, which involves becoming separated/losing control over something once produced or created

  • exists in all societies, most extreme with cap, capitalist workers alienated because they don’t own what they produce, and have no control overproduction, therefore no freedom to express their true nature
  • Alienation reaches peak in detailed division of labour in capitalist factories, where worker repeats the same, one minute task constantly that takes no skill, in dehumanising conditions then exploited
• Marxist theories, alienation and religion

  Due to this, they turned to religion as a form of consolidation

  • marx calls this the opium of people
  • Religion acts to do the pain of exploitation, because religion is a distorted view of the world and can offer no solution
  • Instead, it offers a promise of salvation from bondage in the afterlife, distracting people from the source of alienation (capitalism)
• Marxist theories- slavery


  Description- the practice of force, labour and restricted liberty

  • However, it explains Marxist views- slave masters tried to convert African slaves to European religions, they saw religion as a way of controlling their slaves, preventing rebellion by giving the master control over the slaves beliefs
• Marxist theories- Hindu caste system


  Description- people obey this as they believe in reincarnation, and will be reborn at a higher level

  • How it explains Marxist views-justifies inequality through Hindu caste system, people born into different caste and would move up and down when they died based on religious purity meaning if you were bad in a previous life, you would have a bad next life so it’s justified and rebellion
• marxist theories- evaluation

  Marx shows how religion may be a tool of oppression that masks, exploitation, and creates false consciousness, however, ignores the positive functions of religion, such as psychological adjustment to misfortune

  • Neo-Marxist See certain forms of religion as assisting, not hindering the development of class consciousness
• Feminism and religion

  Assumptions, societies, patriarchal, and organised for the benefit of men at the expense of women

  • Religion supports male domination, through its beliefs, values, norms and has played a major role in controlling women, keeping them in place in the interest of men
• Feminist theories- evidence of patriarchy

  Religious organisations- mainly male dominated, despite the fact that women participate in these organisations, e.g. orthodox, Judaism and caltholcism forbid, women priests.

  • Armstrong Sees women’s exclusion from the priesthood as evidence of women’s marginalisation.
  • places of worship- segregate, the sexes and marginalised women, putting them behind screens while men get more sacred spaces, participation may be restricted e.g. by not allowing them to preach or read sacred texts e.g. in Islam menstruating women aren’t allowed to touch the Quran
• feminist theories- evidence of patriarchy

  Sacred texts- largely feature, the dings of male gods et cetera. They are usually written and interpreted by males stories, often reflect anti-female stereotypes

  • E.g. eve in the story of Genesis who caused humanities fall from Grace and expulsion from the garden of Eden
  • Religious laws and customs- give women fewer rights, than men (e.g. access to divorce, how many spouses they marry, dress code) religious influence on cultural norms, may also lead to unequal treatment e.g. genital mutilation
• Feminist theories- religion is oppressive towards women


  Conservative Islamic examples:

  • Only men had an own horses, camels and sheep
  • Cultural arranged marriage
  • Men allowed to have several wives
  • Men have choice to divorce
  • Adultery, women to death
• Feminist theories- Karen Armstrong

  Early religion placed women at the centre, e.g. Earth, mother, goddess, fertility cult and female priesthood were found throughout the Middle East until about 6000

  • However, the rise of monotheistic religion saw the establishment of a male, God and male prophets
• Feminist theories- nawal el saadawi 


  Agrees, it’s not the direct cause of their subordination, rather, it’s the result of patriarchal forms of society coming into existence in the last few thousand years

  • However, once, in existence patriarchy began to reshape religion, e.g. men, reinterpreted, religious beliefs in ways that favoured patriarchy