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• 1588 - Defeat for the Spanish in Armada

  • Defeat for Spain
  • Win for England → Francis Drake
  • After this, the English try to gradually conquest the Spanish colonies
  • There were many attempts → Barbados and Guyana to become permanent colonies
• 1612 - Battle of Suvahili

  • This battle was the result of the trade monopoly Portugal had in India
  • The East India Company won this battle against Portugal
• 1618-1648 - Thirty Years' War
• 1622 - "Massacre" of Amboyna

  • The Amboyna massacre was the torture and execution on Ambon Island (present-day Indonesia) of 21 men by agents of the VOC on accusations of treason.
  • → English men were killed
• 1688-1697 - Nine Years War

  • The Nine Years War was part of the first part of the Second Hundred Years' War
  • → This war weakened the Netherlands

  The Nine Years War was fought between France and the Great Alliance, which was created by the Netherlands.

  These wars in Europe were also fought in the colonies → mostly in North America
• 1700-1713 - Spanish Succession War

  • This war was during the first part of the Second Hundred Years War
  • Britain gained Gibraltar & Minorca from Spain
  • Britain gained Acadia from Spain
  • As consequence of the war of the Spanish succession, Spain lost possessions in Italy and low countries
  • These wars in Europe were also fought in the colonies → mostly in North America
• 1728 - Bering Strait & Bering Sea

  
• 1739-1742 - The Jenkins' Ear War

  • Conflict between Britain and Spain → majority of fighting took place in New Granada and the Caribbean Sea
  • → Spain successfully defended its possessions in the Americas
• 1740-1748 - Austrian Succession War

  • This war was part of the first part of the Second Hundred Years War
  • France occupied Madras, but returns it to Britain
  • These wars in Europe were also fought in the colonies → mostly in North America
• 1753 - Treatise of the scurvy

  Exploration of the Pacific

  • Continuity with previous centuries
  • Cf. also future centuries: Africa – Poles – Space
  • Culture
  • Fascination with the far away and the savage
  • Science (Enlightenment)
  • Myth of a large southern continent: Terra Australis
  • 1753: A treatise of the scurvy (vitamin C)
  • → Because of scurvy it wasn’t possible to make long trips, so after the cure was found it became easier for the people to travel further → Oceania
  • Political
  • Great Britain: vs. Dutch Cape of Goop Hope
  • France: loss of footholds in India and North America
• 1754-1763 - French and Indian War

  • In particular: the control of the Ohio Country

  There were different approaches:

  • France
  • Let the colonies fight for themselves
  • → French colonies lacked naval support
  • Britain
  • Avoid military commitment on the continent
  • British colonies had numerical superiority
• 1756-1763 - Seven Years’ War

  • Part of the Seventy Years’ War → which is part of the Second Hundred Years’ War
  • Conflicts between Britain and France which involved the rest of the world → because they happened in the colonies of America
  • The great change of partners
  • Century-old enemies France and Austria (and Russia)
  • VERSUS
  • Britain (largest navy) and Prussia (largest land force)
  • Outcome
  • Change in the balance of power

  Seven Years War → known for change of alliances, fought on different continents, change in the balance of power
• India after Seven Years War:

  European settlements are still there, but less important.

  Britain has conquered large areas of India, Britain was finally conquering inland.

  • Calcutta
  • British fortify Calcutta against French
  • After the experience with Madras in 1746-48
  • Bengal nawab conquers Calcutta
  • Robert Clive reconquers Calcutta (Jan 1757)
  • Bengal
  • Clive supports new and dependent nawab
  • Defeats the old nawab at Plassey (June 1757)
  • Defeats an Indian coalition near Buxar, 1764
  • → British conquest of Bengal

  Britain won the both wars, taken control of Bengal.
• Outcome of the Seven Years War:

  France loses Nouvelle France

  → Choice between the Caribbean and New France

  → East of Mississippi to Britain

  Everything east of the Mississippi went to Britain, everything west went to Spain (→ compensation of the loss of Florida to Britain)

  = in conclusion → Britain won the Seven Years’ War
• 1764 - Chandarnagar and Pondichéry demilitarised

  • France was forced by Britain to demilitarise, in India
• 1775-1783 - The American Independence War

  Part of the Seventy Years’ War → which was part of the Second Hundred Years’ War

  Britain won the Seven Years’ War, resulting in them raising their taxes for the colonies.

  There was resentment in British North America (BNA):

  • London wants compensation after the Seven Years’ War
  • Protection against France and Native Americans
  • BNA pays fewer taxes than Caribbean colonies
  • BNA reply → No taxation without representation

  → Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776
• 1803-1815 - The Napoleonic Wars

  Part of the Seventy Years’ War → which was part of the Second Hundred Years’ War
• 1810-1815 - pro-Napoleon insurrections in Mexico

  • → same insurrections that were happening in South-America
  • But the insurrection was crushed by the loyals to the Spanish throne → Mexico remained with Spain
• 1818 - José de San Martín conquers Chile

  • In 1817 José de San Martin crosses the Andes, which results in him conquering Chile with Bernardo O’Higgins.
• 1821 - Jose de San Martín conquers Lima

  • San Martín conquers Lima in Peru
  • → 1822: San Martín and Bolivar meet behind closed doors, and decide to both be presidents of Peru.
• 1823-1840 - Federal Republic of Central America

  • → Large united independence state (just like the republic of great Colombia)
  • But falls apart due to the elite → Mexican interference + conflicts between conservatives and liberals
• 1898 - Spanish-American War

  • Loss of Puerto-Rico, Cuba and Philippines for Spain.
• 1948-1990 - Apartheid in South Africa

  • Racial legislation from 1910s onwards
  • Voortrekker movement in the 1930s
  • Hendrik Verwoerd (in government 1950-1966)
  • Nelson Mandela (jailed 1962-1990)
• 1517 - Algeria became part of the Ottoman Empire

  • Since 1517 part of the Ottoman Empire
  • Algeria was located on the outskirts of the Ottoman Empire
  • → So the Ottomans had little control over Algeria, so Algeria was largely autonomous