Self Report

• questionnaire 


  sets of questions that are usually completed as pen and paper tests, but can also be done over the Internet or telephone
• advantages of questionnaires


  they enable a great deal of data to be gathered from a large sample very quickly, making this a cost and time-effective method of data collection
• disadvantages of questionnaires


  asking the right question in the right way is very difficult and researchers have to be careful to frame their questions carefully using language their respondents will understand
• interviews


  where participants are interviewed, usually face to face, and their responses recorded
• a structured interview


  where the same set of questions is asked to each participant in the same order. often researchers will not show any expression or interest, for fear of influencing the answers.
• advantages of structured interviews


  it is easier to gather quantitative data than in an unstructured interview, making it possible to analyse the data and draw out trends from responses
• disadvantages of structured interviews

  the structured nature is artificial and the respondent may not feel free to add to or explain their answers. this may mean the data gathered are limited and superficial

  being asked a list of questions in this way is not a natural activity and so lacks ecological validity
• unstructured interview


  where the researcher has topics to discuss but these do not have to be in the same order for each participant and is more like a conversation
• advantages of unstructured interview

  a lot of detailed information/qualitative data can be gathered and this is more like a regular conversation, so higher in ecological validity than the structured interview
• disadvantages of unstructured interview

  because a broad range of topics can be discussed in detail it can be difficult to summarise the data, to analyse the data for trends or make comparisons between participants
• semi-structured interview


  the interviewer has a list of questions but can ask for clarification and can be more friendly and sociable
• advantage of semi-structured interview


  this interaction is likely to be seen by participants as more trustworthy and therefore may be more detailed and both quantitative and qualitative data is collected
• disadvantage of semi-structured interview

  may be time consuming to have an interview like this with every participant, being asked a list of questions is still not a natural activity so there may be a lack of ecological activity
• open questions/free response questions


  allows participants freedom to respond and gives them the opportunity to explain their answers
• advantages of open questions

  they provide qualitative data, ands the researchers are collecting rich, detailed information. validity is also increased because respondents are not forced to respond in a particular way. freedom to respond removes the negative feelings respondents have when forced to choose from a limited range of responses
• disadvantages of open questions

  it is harder to analyse and compare responses to open questions, as the data need to be coded or quantified in some way to do this and this may not be easy. it is therefore difficult to establish the reliability of qualitative responses.
• closed questions/forced response set

  gives the respondent a limited fixed range of responses to choose from
• advantages of closed questions


  gather quantitative data so the results can be easily summarised, presented and compared between participants or conditions. it is also easier to test the reliability of data where quantitative measures have been used
• disadvantages of closed questions

  can lack ecological validity due to the forced choices, the researcher is only gathering limited information and important information may be missed where respondents are unable to qualify or explain their answers. respondents may feel frustrated by the limited number of responses available, affecting their attitude towards the research
• rating scales


  provide a quantitative measure, often used in self-report questionnaires and structured interviews.

  eg. on a scale of 1-10, where 0 is extremely sad and 10 is ecstatically happy, circle the number that indicates how happy you are at the moment
• likert scale


  where people are given a range of answers from which they select the one that represents the extent to which they like/dislike something or agree/disagree with a statement
• advantage of likert scales

  they increase the ecological validity of rating scales, since people have a range of verbal options to choose from and this is not as artificial as choosing from a simple numerical scale of 1-10
• semantic differential scales


  used to put something on a scale between two descriptive words, such as strong and weak. to create a scale, psychologists take two words which are opposite each other and which reflect what is being measured
• disadvantage of semantic differentials

  as they are based on words, participants have to have a reasonable vocabulary and there may be cultural limitations. this would be hard for children to complete, unless simplified enough
• advantages of self-report data

  psychologists are able to measure cognitive variables such as memory, knowledge and attitudes, which cannot be either observed directly or tested for in any biological test
• disadvantages of self-report data

  the validity of the data can be questioned where participants are able to deliberately falsify their answers. this can be because they are responding to demand characteristics or because of evaluation apprehension (the lie to give a socially desirable answer to avoid being judged negatively)