midterms

• Chemiluminescence


  The emission of photons (electromagnetic radiation as light) when chemically excited molecules decay to the ground state following a chemical reaction
• Chemiluminescence


  • Widely used in the pharmaceutical industry to screen for contamination of biological compounds and check for impurities in drugs
  • Used to measure levels of hormones
  • Used to detect many drugs in body fluids
• Ultracentrifuge


  Laboratory centrifuges with rotors that spin at very high speeds, usually ranging from 60,000 RPM and 200,000 x g to 150,000 RPM and 1,000,000 x g
• Types of ultracentrifuges


  • Preparative
  • Analytical
• Preparative ultracentrifuges


  • Isolate or pellet biological particles, viruses, organelles, membranes and biomolecules such as DNA, RNA and lipoproteins
• Analytical ultracentrifuges


  • Use detection systems to monitor spinning samples in real time to determine sedimentation velocity and equilibrium used to determine shape and mass of macromolecules
• Applications of analytical ultracentrifugation

  • Determination of the purity (including the presence of aggregates) and oligomeric state of macromolecules, by recording sedimentation velocity data
  • Determination of the average molecular mass of solutes in their native state
  • Study of changes in the molecular mass of supramolecular complexes, using either sedimentation velocity, sedimentation equilibrium (or both)
  • The detection of conformation and conformational changes
• Applications of preparative ultracentrifugation

  • Subcellular fractionation
  • Affinity purification of membrane vesicles
  • Separation of DNA components
  • Colloid separation
  • Virus purification
• Electrochemical cell


  A device that can generate electrical energy from the chemical reactions occurring in it, or use the electrical energy supplied to it to facilitate chemical reactions in it
• Electrochemical cell


  • A standard 1.5-volt cell which is used to power many electrical appliances such as TV remotes and clocks
• Types of electrochemical cells

  • Galvanic cells (also known as Voltaic cells)
  • Electrolytic cells
• Applications of electrochemical cells

  • Electrolytic cells are used in the electrorefining of many non-ferrous metals
  • Electrolytic cells are used in the electrowinning of these metals
  • The production of high-purity lead, zinc, aluminium, and copper involves the use of electrolytic cells
  • Metallic sodium can be extracted from molten sodium chloride by placing it in an electrolytic cell and passing an electric current through it
  • Many commercially important batteries (such as the lead-acid battery) are made up of Galvanic cells
  • Fuel cells are an important class of electrochemical cells that serve as a source of clean energy in several remote locations
• Immunochemistry


  A branch of chemistry that involves the study of the components and functions of the immune system such as the nature and interactions of antigen-antibody
• Immunochemistry involves the use of simple, rapid, robust yet sensitive automated methods for routine analyses in clinical laboratories
• Edward Jenner discovered the vaccination against smallpox


  1790
• Emil von Behring, the German physiologist, discovered serum antibodies to cure diphtheria and tetanus


  1890
• Applications of immunochemistry


  • Identifying prognostic markers in cancer
  • Predicting response to therapy
  • Identifying infections
  • Identifying muscular and neurodegenerative disorders
  • Identifying cancers such as metastatic Merkel cell carcinoma and in lung adenocarcinoma
• Wet chemistry


  Chemistry generally done in the liquid phase, also known as bench chemistry because many of the tests performed are done at a lab bench, traditionally involving the use of laboratory glassware and excluding quantitative chemical analysis using instrumentation
• Uses of wet chemistry

  • Qualitative chemical measurements, such as changes in color (colorimetry)
  • Quantitative chemical measurements, using methods such as gravimetry and titrimetry
  • Elemental analysis of samples, e.g., water sources
• Variable


  Things that we measure, count, or otherwise delineate
• Types of variables


  • Nominal
  • Ordinal
  • Interval
• Nominal scale


  A variable can take on only a limited number of values, usually called categories (or characters)
• Ordinal scale


  A variable takes on specific values that have some inherent order such as magnitude but without equivalent distances between categories
• Interval scale


  A variable takes on values in a quantitative range with defined differences between points
• Independent variable


  Already determined and so is not influenced by other factors, e.g. age, gender, temperature, and time
• Dependent variable


  Things that might change in response to the independent variable, e.g. blood glucose concentration, enzyme activities, and the presence or absence of malignancy
• Gaussian (normal) distribution


  A spread of data in which elements are distributed symmetrically around the mean, with most values close to the center

  
• Parametric statistics


  Statistical measures calculated based on the assumption that the data points follow a Gaussian distribution and include parameters such as mean, variance, and standard deviation

  
• Descriptive statistics


  • Mean
  • Median
  • Mode
  • Standard deviation
  • Coefficient of variation
  • Variance

  
• Mean


  Calculated by adding the values of all the individual data points and dividing that sum by the total number of data points
• Median


  The "middle" value, used when the data are skewed so its calculation will not be affected by outliers
• Mode


  The most frequent observation, rarely used, used to describe data with two centers (bimodal)
• Range


  The simplest expression of spread or distribution, the difference between the highest and lowest score in a data
• Standard deviation


  A measure of dispersion of values from the mean, helps describe the normal curve, a measure of distribution range

  
• Coefficient of variation


  A percentile expression of the mean, an index of precision

  
• Variance


  Called the SD squared, a measure of variability that determines significant differences between groups of data
• SD index


  The difference between the value of a data point and the mean value divided by the group's SD
• 1. test


  Used to compare the means of two groups to determine if they are statistically different from each other
• Measures of Central Tendency

  • Mean
  • Median
  • Mode
• Mean


  Adding the values of all the individual data points and dividing that sum by the total number of data points