Learning over time through the encoding, storage and retrieval of information
Stages in Information-Processing Model
1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
Encoding
Getting information into the memory system
Storage
Retaining encoded information over time
Retrieval
Getting information out of memory storage
Atkinson & Shiffrin's Information-Processing Model
Working Memory
Two-Track Processing: Automatic vs. Effortful
Automatic processing
We automatically process information about, its done unconsciously
Effortful processing
Requires close attention and effort
Encoding Meaning- Semantic
Getting information in by translating it into personally meaningful information
Encoding Images
Easier to remember things we can process visually as well as meaningfully
Miller's Magic Number
Our short term capacity to remember between 5 and 9 pieces of information
Chunking
Organizing larger pieces of information into chunks to store more in working memory
Spaced Study and Self-Assessment
Spacing effect: Tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than massed study or practice
Explicit Memory System: The Hippocampus
Explicit and conscious memories are either semantic or episodic
Semantic memory
Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge
Episodic memory
Explicit memory of personally experienced events
Hippocampus
Acts as a loading dock where the brain registers and temporarily stores aspects of an event
Effect of Emotions on Memory Processing
Excitement or stress triggers hormone production which boosts activity in the brain's memory-forming areas
Flashbulb memories
Clear memories of emotionally significant events
Key Memory Structures in the Brain
Frontal lobes and hippocampus - Explicit memory formation
Cerebellum and basal ganglia - Implicit memory formation
Amygdala - Emotion-related memory formation
Pinpointed changes in neural connections, more serotonin release during learning, synapses become more efficient, number of synapses increases with experience and learning
Recall
Memory demonstrated by retrieving information learned earlier
Recognition
Memory demonstrated by identifying items previously learned
Relearning
Memory demonstrated by time saved when learning material for a second time
Retrieving a Memory
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations, retrieval cues serve as anchor points for pathways to access a memory, the best cues come from associations formed at encoding
Priming
Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Context Effects
Memories are context dependent, affected by cues associated with a specific context, state-dependent memory, mood-congruent memory
Serial Position Effect
Tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list
Seven Sins of Memory
Sins of Forgetting and Retrieval: Absent-mindedness, Transience, Blocking
Sins of distortion: Misattribution, Suggestibility, Bias
Sin of intrusion: Persistence
Forgetting
Can occur at any memory stage, caused by encoding failure and storage decay
Retrieval Failure
Stems from interference and motivated forgetting
Motivated Forgetting
People repress painful or unacceptable memories to protect their self-concept and minimize anxiety
Interference
The blocking of recall as old or new learning disrupts the recall of other memories
Transience/Storage Decay
Overtime, unused information tends to fade away
Misinformation Effect
A memory that has been corrupted by misleading information
Source Amnesia
Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined
Imagination and Memories
Imagining fake actions and events can create false memories
Children's Eyewitness Recall
Researchers found 58% of preschoolers produced false stories about one or more unexperienced events
Tips for Improving Memory
Study repeatedly
Space study sessions apart
Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material
Make the material personally meaningful
Activate retrieval cues
Minimize interference
Sleep more
Test your knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you don't know