A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
Intrinsic motivation
Arises from internal factors, behaviors are performed because they bring a sense of personal satisfaction
Extrinsic motivation
Arises from external factors, behaviors are performed in order to receive something from others
Drive-reduction theory
The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state that motivates an individual to satisfy the need (return to homeostasis)
Drive-reduction theory
Individuals have physiological needs
If a need is not met, it creates a drive
Drives push individuals to reduce the need
Strong drives result from both a need and an incentive- which are positive or negative stimuli that motivate or pull behavior
Arousal theory
Individuals perform better at different levels of arousal
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Task performance is best when arousal levels are in a middle range, with difficult tasks best performed under lower levels of arousal and simple tasks best performed under higher levels of arousal
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Some needs are more important than others, basic needs must be satisfied first
Physiological needs not being met
Prompts individuals to take risks to satisfy them
Hunger drive
Environmental stimuli like larger containers, bigger servings, and more variety can influence and motivate eating behavior
Hunger drive body chemistry and the brain
If blood glucose levels drop, the brain is signaled to trigger hunger
The lateral hypothalamus brings on hunger and eating behavior, the ventromedial hypothalamus depresses hunger and stops eating behavior
Appetite hormones
Ghrelin (secreted by empty stomach, sends "I'm hungry" signals)
Insulin (secreted by pancreas, controls blood glucose)
Leptin (secreted by fat cells, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger)
Hunger-environmental motivators
Presence of others amplifies natural behavior tendencies
Quantity of consumed food is influenced by size of serving and dinnerware
Food variety promotes eating
Strategic placement of food can enable a preference for healthier foods
Eating disorders
Anorexia nervosa (starving oneself even when significantly underweight)
Bulimia nervosa (alternating binge eating with purging, fasting or excessive exercising)
Binge eating disorder (binge eating followed by self loathing or guilt without the purging or exercise)
Need to belong
A basic human motivation/drive, social bonds and cooperation support survival, group membership enhances self-esteem and well-being
Effects of dissolving social ties
Anxiety
Loneliness
Jealousy
Guilt
Ostracism
Deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups, psychologically brings the same unpleasantness as physical pain
Effects of ostracism
Fosters depressed moods or emotional numbness
Triggers aggression
Increases risk of mental decline and ill health
Social networking
Strengthens connections with people one already knows, but has become a time- and attention- distraction, self-disclosure is less inhibited, feeding place for narcissists
Emotion
Motivated behavior is often connected to powerful emotions, which are a mix of bodily arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience
James-Lange theory
Emotions arise from physiological arousal
Cannon-Bard theory
Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently
Schachter-Singer theory
Physiological arousal is interpreted in context leading to the emotional experience
Spillover effect
Arousal from one event can influence the response to the next event
Zajonc's two-track brain
Some emotions travel the 'high road' via the thalamus to the cortex, while others take the 'low road' directly to the amygdala
Brain scans and EEGs reveal that some emotions differ in their brain circuits, with the right frontal lobe active for negative emotions and the left frontal lobe active for positive moods
Different emotions can share common biological signatures, with subtle indicators depicting the physiology of different emotions
Polygraph
Measures emotion-linked changes in breathing, heart rate, and perspiration, but is considered ineffective for lie detection
Detecting emotion in others
Humans communicate without words, can detect nonverbal threats, but it is difficult to detect deceiving emotions
Gender differences in emotion detection
Women detect emotions better than men, tend to respond with and express greater emotion, and experience emotional events more deeply
People are more likely to see a gender-neutral face as male when it wears an angry expression, and as female when it wears a smile
Culture and emotion
The meanings of gestures vary among cultures, but humans share a universal facial language linked with adaptive behaviors
Facial feedback effect
Facial muscle states tend to trigger corresponding feelings
Behavior feedback effect
Outward behaviors and movements can also trigger inner feelings and emotions
Emotions are contagious, and psychological emotions come equipped with physical reactions, with negative emotions and prolonged high arousal potentially harming health
Anger expression
Venting angry feelings may not always calm down the anger, as expressing anger can sometimes magnify it