Biology

• Microscopes


  Normal light microscope can see cells and nucleus, electron microscope can see subcellular structures in more detail
• Calculating cell size


  1. Measure image size

  2. Divide by magnification
• Eukaryotic cells


  Have a nucleus containing DNA
• Prokaryotic cells


  Do not have a nucleus, DNA is in a ring called a plasmid
• Cell structures


  • Cell membrane
  • Cell wall (in plants and bacteria)
  • Cytoplasm
  • Mitochondria
  • Ribosomes
  • Chloroplasts (in plants)
• Diploid cells


  Have 23 pairs of chromosomes
• Haploid cells


  Have 23 single chromosomes
• Mitosis


  1. Genetic material duplicated

  2. Nucleus breaks down

  3. Chromosomes pulled to opposite sides

  4. New nuclei form
• Specialised cell types


  • Nerve
  • Muscle
  • Root hair
  • Xylem
  • Phloem
• Stem cells


  Unspecialised cells that can differentiate into different cell types
• Diffusion


  Movement of molecules/particles from high to low concentration, down concentration gradient, passive process
• Osmosis


  Diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane
• Practical: Osmosis


  1. Cut potato cylinders

  2. Weigh

  3. Place in sugar solutions

  4. Reweigh

  5. Calculate % change in mass

  6. Plot graph to find no change concentration
• Active transport


  Using energy to move substances against a concentration gradient
• Digestive system processes


  • Stomach acid
  • Bile
  • Enzymes
• Enzymes


  Biological catalysts, specific to certain substrates, work on a lock and key principle
• Practical: Enzyme activity


  1. Mix amylase and starch

  2. Test for starch every 10 seconds with iodine

  3. Plot time to complete reaction against temperature or pH

  4. Find optimum conditions
• Food tests


  • Iodine for starch
  • Benedict's solution for sugars
  • Biuret's reagent for proteins
  • Ethanol for lipids
• Breathing vs respiration


  Breathing provides oxygen for respiration in cells
• Gas exchange in lungs

  1. Air enters trachea

  2. Into bronchi and bronchioles

  3. Diffuses into blood in alveoli
• Circulatory system


  Double circulatory system, deoxygenated blood enters right side of heart, oxygenated blood leaves left side
• Blood vessels


  Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from heart, veins carry deoxygenated blood towards heart
• Coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with oxygen
• Cardiovascular disease


  Non-communicable disease caused by factors within the body, e.g. atherosclerosis
• Communicable diseases are caused by pathogens that can be transmitted between organisms
• Coronary artery


  Delivers blood to the heart muscle to supply oxygen
• Heart attack


  Occurs when coronary arteries are blocked by buildup of fatty deposits, causing coronary heart disease (CHD)
• Stents


  Little tubes inserted into blood vessels to keep them open and allow blood flow
• Statins


  Drugs that reduce cholesterol, which reduces fatty deposits
• Faulty heart valves


  Result in backflow, can be replaced with artificial ones
• Blood


  Carries plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells (combat infections), and platelets (clot wounds)
• Cardiovascular disease (CVD)


  An example of a non-communicable disease, caused by factors within the body
• Examples of non-communicable diseases

  • Cardiovascular disease
  • Autoimmune conditions
  • Cancer
• Communicable disease


  Caused by a pathogen (virus, bacteria, fungus, or parasite) that enters the body
• Carcinogen


  Anything that increases the risk of cancer
• Benign cancer


  Doesn't spread through the body, relatively easy to treat
• Malignant cancer


  Cancerous cells spread through the body, much worse
• Leaves


  Where photosynthesis takes place, producing food for the plant
• Transpiration


  The diffusing of water out of leaves, allowing water and minerals to be drawn up from the roots
• Xylem


  Long continuous tubes that water rises up, unidirectional