5 (LO5)

• Expectant Theory


  states that motivation is determined by employee beliefs about expected performance and outcomes.
• Two theories—organizational behaviour modification (OB Mod) and social cognitive theory


  —complement expectancy theory by explaining how people learn what to expect from their actions, which is how people develop the

  expectancies that affect motivation.
• behaviourism


  the dominant paradigm about managing individual behaviour
• Organizational Behaviour Modification (OB Mod)


  A theory that explains employee behaviour in terms of the antecedent conditions and consequences of that behaviour.
• OB Mod attempts to change behaviour (B) by managing its antecedents (A) and consequences (C)
• Consequences


  are events following a particular behaviour that influence its future occurrence.
• Antecedents


  are events preceding the behaviour, informing

  employees that a particular action will produce specific consequences.
• Behaviour


  What a person says or does
• OB Mod identifies four types of consequences, called the contingencies of reinforcement.
• Four OB Mod Consequences​(P.P.E.N)

  • Positive reinforcement
  • Punishment
  • Extinction
  • Negative Reinforcement
• Positive Reinforcement


  refers to any consequence that, when introduced, increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behaviour.
• Punishment


  refers to any consequence that decreases the frequency or future probability of a specific behaviour occurring.
• Extinction

  occurs when the target behaviour decreases

  because no consequence follows it.
• Extinction

  When no consequence, behaviour decreases.
• Negative Reinforcement


  often confused with the application of punishment. It’s actually the opposite—the removal of punishment.
• Negative Reinforcement


  occurs when the removal or avoidance of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behaviour
• Schedules of Reinforcement

  OB Mod considers the frequency and timing of these reinforcers
• continuous reinforcement


  The most effective reinforcement schedule for learning new tasks.
• Continuous Reinforcement

  providing positive reinforcement after every occurrence of the desired behaviour
• variable ratio schedule

  the most effective reinforcement schedule for motivating behaviour
• Variable ratio schedule

  providing positive reinforcement after a varying number of times.
• Gamification


  An innovative and increasingly popular workplace behaviour modification strategy
• Gamification


  reinforcing behaviour through digital games in which employees earn points and “badges” and compete for top positions on leader boards.
• Gamification

  potentially reinforces learning and desired behaviours through positive reinforcement and extinction.
• organizational behaviour modification has a number of limitations.

  1. reward inflation

  2. variable ratio schedule of reinforcement tends to create a lottery-style reward system.
• reward inflation


  which the reinforcer is eventually considered an entitlement.
• Social Cognitive Theory​


  A theory that explains how learning and motivation occur by observing and modelling others as well as by anticipating the consequences of our behaviour.
• Observation and modelling


  alternative to the behaviourist approach.
• Three most relevant to employee motivation

  1. Learning behaviour consequences.
  2. Behaviour modelling.
  3. Self-regulation.
• Learning Behaviour Consequences


  observing or hearing about what happened to other people, not just by directly experiencing the consequences.
• Learning behaviour consequences


  Anticipate consequences in other/related situations.
• Behaviour modelling.


  people learn by imitating and practising their behaviours
• Behaviour modelling


  also increases E-to-P expectancy because people develop a stronger self-efficacy after observing others and performing the task successfully themselves.
• Self-efficacy


  particularly improves when observers are similar to the model in age, experience, gender, and related characteristics.
• Self-Regulation


  An important feature of social cognitive theory is that human beings set goals and engage in other forms of intentional, purposive action.
• Self-regulation


  Set goals and standards, anticipate consequences.​
• Self-regulation


  establish their own shortand long- term objectives, choose their own standards of achievement, work out a plan of action, consider back-up alternatives, and have the forethought to anticipate the consequences of their goal-directed behaviour.
• people self-regulate by engaging in self-reinforcement;
• Self-reinforcement


  they reward and punish themselves for exceeding or falling short of their self-set goals.