PMT Contemp Urban Envs

• Urbanisation


  The growth in the proportion of a country living in urban areas
• More than 50% of the world's population currently live in urban areas (3.4 billion people) and more than 80% of the UK population live in urban areas
• Urbanisation is happening faster in poorer countries as more are moving for better work and health opportunities which are available in cities
• Since 1950, the rate of urbanisation has grown for both richer and poorer countries but the rate has been twice as great in poorer countries than richer countries. 25% of Bangladesh currently live in urban areas
• The proportion living in urban areas is less in Low Income Countries than that of richer countries
• Urban areas

  • Have better healthcare, service accessibility and life expectancy
  • As life expectancy is higher, the proportion of people living in urban areas is increased
• Suburbanisation

  The outward growth of urban development where people move to the suburbs
• Suburbs

  The outlying areas of the city which are close enough to the central business district so accessible by commuters. They are usually predominantly residential areas
• Counter-urbanisation

  When large numbers of people move from urban areas into surrounding countryside or rural areas. This is largely a demographic and social process
• Urban growth

  • Is facilitated by economic, social, technological, political and demographic processes
  • These processes provide incentives, encouraging people to move to urban areas
  • For instance, the greater exposure to new technologies, cultures and job opportunities may entice people to move to cities for a better quality of life
• Megacities


  Metropolitan areas with a total population greater than ten million people
• In 2015, there were 35 megacities in the world; the largest being Tokyo, Delhi, Mumbai and Mexico City to name a few
• Megacities and world cities

  • Have an important role in global and regional economies as they have large markets and are central businesses districts involving the world
• Cities also face urban change over time, such as deindustrialisation, decentralisation and the risks of service economies. Often, this leads to urban policies and regeneration schemes, which has been happening in Britain since 1979
• Urban forms

  The physical characteristics that make up built areas, including the shape, size, density and configuration of settlements
• When a city grows at a manageable rate, considered to be 1% annually, the infrastructure can keep pace with the growing demands of the population. However, with megacities, necessities such as public transportation, sewer systems, water facilities, healthcare and education become strained as the population density is too great to be managed
• Without proper facilities, low income urban residents are forced to create their own provisions with the available resources. This leads to a rise in squatter settlements, poor health and poor sanitation
• Urban growth may lead to urban sprawl which creates wider urban areas, forcing more places to become overcrowded and a reduction of countryside
• The Burgess Model


  A model that claims the centre of the city (CBD: Central Business District) is where commercial businesses and international exchanges occur. The next two rings are the inner city which has a mix of poor housing and older industrial buildings. The fourth ring represents the suburbs which is residential housing, often being cheaper than within the central business district. The final ring represents the rural-urban fringe which is the edge of a city where there are both urban and rural land uses

  
• Urbanisation

  • Creates economic inequality, social segregation and cultural diversity which may lead to a rise in racism, hate crime and abuse but this varies globally
  • Ethnic segregation is closely related to economic indicators, such as income and employment, and social indicators such as health, crime and education
  • Segregation then leads stereotypes to form which creates bias and injustice within society
• Additional social problems in urban areas include a shortage of good quality housing, run down CBDs and traffic congestion. These issues can be fixed through urban renewal schemes, the creation of new towns, such as Milton Keynes which was made in the 1970s, relocation incentives and congestion charges
• Urban climate


  Climatic conditions within urban areas which differ from neighbouring rural areas
• Urbanisation changes the form of the landscape and consequently produces changes in an area's air quality
• Surfaces that were permeable become impermeable and dry due to urbanisation. Urbanisation leads to a growth in impermeable surfaces due to the development of infrastructure, roads and pavements
• Urban heat island effect


  Urban regions become warmer than their rural surroundings

  
• Urban structures are built to withstand wind speeds and damage from precipitation, particularly thunderstorms and hail storms
• As the darker surfaces of the city absorb heat energy, the warmer temperatures will mean there are greater rates of evaporation

  
• Urbanisation can damage rivers and the water cycle through contamination and pollution. This can be solved through water conservation and river restoration, along with the development of sustainable urban damage systems (SUDS)
• It is the actions of key players, such as governments and local authorities, to develop and enforce these projects
• Urban physical waste

  Waste generated from industrial and commercial activity alongside personal consumption
• Urban areas often have a consumerist culture which traditionally does not promote sustainability, reuse and recycling. Additionally, many people excuse themselves from making sustainable choices as they feel they have little input in improving the environment
• Reasons why waste disposal is a serious problem

  • Money: Poorer countries cannot afford to dispose waste sustainably and safely, such as toxic waste which requires special treatment
  • Infrastructure: The lack of suitable infrastructure, i.e. the densely populated residential areas makes it difficult to carry out large scale recycling schemes
  • Scale: Waste disposal is a huge problem. Landfills are not large enough and incineration results in further pollution and waste
• Sustainable living

  Meeting the needs of today without reducing the ability of people in the future to meet their needs
• Urban areas have grown unsustainably and have a large ecological footprint due to the amount of waste and pollution emitted. Urban areas can however be managed sustainably through a range of strategies and schemes
• The four pillars of sustainability

  • Natural
  • Physical
  • Social
  • Economic
• Liveability

  The sum of factors that add up to a community's quality of life, including the natural and built environment, economic prosperity, social stability, educational opportunity and cultural, economic and recreation possibilities
• Ways a city can become sustainable


  • Schemes to reduce waste and safely dispose of it: Limiting waste sent to landfills and optimising recycling opportunities
  • Conserving natural environments and historic buildings: These are resources and if they get used up today, they will not be available for future generations. Historic buildings can be restored and natural environments can become protected
  • Building on brownfield sites: By using derelict sites, land is not wasted and greenfield sites can be protected. They can provide homes and eliminate housing pressures
  • Building carbon-neutral homes: For example, BedZED is a housing development in London which aims to be a carbon neutral project, saving energy for future generations
  • Creating an efficient public transport system: This will mean there are fewer cars on the road so pollution is reduced
• Accessibility


  How easy it is to travel to a place or interact with an individual
• Agriculture Based Regeneration

  The focus of regeneration is to help local farms produce extra revenue such as creating farm shops, building the reputation of local produce and starting local farm attractions (maze mazes, muddy assault courses, tractor trailer rides etc.)
• Amenity Value


  The value of a resource to locals and businesses (beaches, timber, coal)