anatomy

• BODY POSITIONS

  • Cranial- features closer to the head Caudal- features closer to the feet
  • Front of the body- referred to as anterior or ventral
  • Back- referred to as posterior or dorsal
  • Proximal and distal describe relative position on the limbs.
  • Proximal-feature that is closer to the torso
  • Distal- feature that is closer to the fingers/toes.
• • Medial and lateral- position relative to the midline, which is a vertical line drawn through the center of the forehead, down through the belly button to the floor. Medial indicates a feature is closer to this line
  • Lateral- indicates features further from this line.
• The human body is a biological machine made of body systems; groups of organs that work together to produce and sustain life.
• RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

  Primary Function:

  • acid-base balance regulation.
  • phonation.
  • the major respiratory system function is to bring oxygen into the body and expel carbon dioxide.
• The respiratory system consists of a series of organs:

  • upper respiratory systems consist of nasal cavity and pharynx
  • lower respiratory system consist of larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs (alveoli).
• The cardiovascular system is comprised of the heart and the circulatory system of blood vessels.

  • The heart is composed of four chambers; two atria and two ventricles.
  • Blood enters the heart through the upper chambers of the left and right atria and exits via the left and right ventricles.
  • Heart valves prevent the backflow of blood.
• The heart acts as a two-way pump.

  • The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary circulation of the lungs, where the blood is reoxygenated again.
  • While the left side of the heart simultaneously pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation, distributing it to the peripheral tissues.
• The regular pumping, or heartbeat, is controlled by the conduction system of the heart.
• The circulatory system, also called the vascular system

  consists of: arteries, veins and capillaries.
• There are three separate circuits to the circulatory system.

  • The pulmonary circulation which carries blood between the heart and the lungs;
  • The coronary circulation which supplies blood to the muscle of the heart
  • The systemic circulation which carries blood to the rest of the body.
• DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

  • The digestive system function is to degrade food into smaller and smaller compounds, until they can be absorbed into the body and used as energy.
  • It consists of a series of gastrointestinal tract organs and accessory digestive organs.
• The digestive system organs spread from the mouth to the anal canal.

  • So it’s actually a tube consisting of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anal canal.
  • Accessory digestive organs assist with the mechanical and chemical food breakdown, these are the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gallbladder.
• SKELETAL SYSTEM

  • The skeletal system is composed of bones and cartilages.

  There are two parts of the skeleton:

  • The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the head and trunk.
  • The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones within the limbs, as well as supporting pectoral and pelvic girdles.
• There are three muscle types:

  • Smooth muscle is found within walls of blood vessels and hollow organs such as the stomach or intestines.
  • Cardiac muscle cells form the heart muscle, also called the false.
  • Skeletal muscles attach to the bones of the body.
• Nervous system controls how we interact with and respond to our environment, by controlling the function of the organs in our other body systems.

  The nervous system organs are the brain, spinal cord and sensory organs. These are connected by neurons, which act to transmit neural signals around the body. .
• CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

  The central nervous system definition is that it receives information from the body’s environment and generates instructions, thereby controlling all the activities of the human body. This two-way information flow into, and out of, the CNS is conveyed by the peripheral nervous system.
• • The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.
  • The CNS is made of neurons and their processes (axons).
  • Gray matter is made of neuron cell bodies, it is found in the cerebral cortexand the central portion of the spinal cord.
  • White matter is made of axons, which combine and build neural pathways.
  • The gray matter is where the instructions generate, while the white matter is the path through which the instructions travel toward the organs.
• The peripheral nervous system definition is that it conducts information from the CNS to the target tissues, and from the target tissues to the CNS.

  It consists of nerves and their ganglia.
• Nerves that carry information from peripheral sense organs (for example eye, tongue, nasal mucosa, ear, skin) to the CNS are called the ascending, afferent or sensory nerve fibers.
• Fibers that carry information from the CNS to the periphery (muscles and glands) are the descending, efferent, motor or secretory nerve fibers.
• The somatic nervous system definition is that it allows voluntary control over our movements and responses.

  • Major somatic peripheral nerves include the median nerve, sciatic nerve and femoral nerve.
• The autonomic nervous system definition is that it controls all the internal organs unconsciously, through the associated smooth muscle and glands.

  Functionally, the ANS is divided into: sympathetic (SANS) and parasympathetic (PANS)
• • The sympathetic nervous system definition is informally known as producing the “flight or fight“ state as it is the part of the ANS which is mostly active during stress.
  • PANS dominates during rest, and is more active in “rest and digest“ or “Feed and breed“ activities.
• Urinary system is a body drainage system comprised of the group of organs that produce and excrete urine. It consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
• The kidneys have a rich blood supply provided by the renal artery. Nephrons within the kidneys filter the blood that passes through their web of capillaries (glomerulus). The blood filtrate then passes through a series of tubules and collecting ducts, eventually forming the final ultrafiltrate, urine.
• Urine passes into the ureters, tubes of smooth muscle that convey urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. The bladder is a hollow muscular organ that collects and stores urine before disposal by urination (micturition). Functions of the urinary system include; elimination of body waste, regulation of blood volume and blood pressure, regulation of electrolyte levels and blood pH.
• The endocrine system is a collection of specialised organs (endocrine glands) scattered throughout the body that act to produce hormones.
• triiodothyronine which regulates metabolism
• estrogen and progesterone which regulate the menstrual cycle
• The skin is the largest organ of the body.
• The epidermis is a thick keratinized epithelium made of multiple cell layers.
• The dermis is a layer of connective tissue that contains blood vessels and nerves that supply the skin.
• The underlying fascia, also called the hypodermis, consists of fat, connective tissue and skin appendages (hair, nails, sebaceous and sweat glands).
• The lymphatic system function is to; convey and eliminate toxins and waste from the body; recirculate proteins; and defend the body from microorganisms.
• The reproductive system is a system of internal and external sex organs which work together to contribute towards the reproduction process.
• The external female sex organs, also known as the genitals, are the organs of the vulva (the labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening). The internal sex organs are the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina. The vulva provides an entry to, and protection, for the vagina and uterus, as well as the proper warmth and moisture that aids in its sexual and reproductive functions. In addition, it is important for the sexual arousal and orgasm in females.
• The vagina is the canal leading from the outside of the body to the cervix (neck) of the uterus.
• Ovaries secrete hormones and produce egg cells, which are transported to the uterus fallopian tubes.
• The uterus provides protection, nutrition, and waste removal for the developing embryo and fetus. In addition, contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus contribute to pushing out the fetus at the time of birth.
• MALE

  external sex organs: testes and penis

  internal sex organs: epididymis, ductus deferens and accessory glands.