Psychology paper 2

• Psychodynamic approach


  Behaviour is determined more by psychological factors than biological factors or environmental reinforcement
• Sigmund Freud


  Believed that people are born with basic instincts/drives and that behaviour is largely controlled by the unconscious mind
• Freud's metaphor of the mind

  • The tip of the iceberg represents the conscious mind
  • The unconscious mind is the larger part of the iceberg hidden under water, containing the ego, superego and ID
• Defence mechanisms


  Prevent traumatic memories from the unconscious from reaching the conscious awareness
• Id


  • Operates solely in the unconscious and according to the pleasure principle, demands immediate gratification
  • Contains libido, which is our sex drive
• Superego


  • The conscience, internalisation of societal rules, decides which behaviours are acceptable, causes feelings of guilt when rules are broken
• Ego


  • Balances the id's impulsive demands and the moralistic demands of the superego
• Defence mechanisms


  Reduce anxiety, stop individuals from becoming aware of unpleasant memories associated with a traumatic situation
• Repression


  Unbearable memories (e.g. Those related to internal conflicts) are kept out of consciousness, influence behaviour without an individual being aware
• Denial


  Refusal to accept reality so as to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that might be associated with the event
• Displacement


  Redirecting of (usually) hostile thoughts/feelings by directing emotions to an innocent victim instead of the person they should be directing it towards
• Psychosexual stages


  • Oral (0-2 years)
  • Anal (2-3 years)
  • Phallic (3-6 years)
  • Latent (6-12 years)
  • Genital (12+ years)
• Oedipus complex


  Boys develop unconscious sexual desires for their mothers
• Electra complex


  Girls develop unconscious sexual desires for their father and then develop penis envy
• Freud's case study with Hans

  1. Hans was afraid of horses because he thought they might bite or fall onto him

  2. Hans developed an interest in his penis, his mother told him not to play with it or she'll cut it off

  3. Hans' fear of horses was an example of displacement, a defence mechanism that protected him from the real fear of his father
• Psychodynamic approach was the first theory to focus on psychological causes of disorders
• Psychodynamic approach offers methods of therapy e.g. psychoanalysis which may reveal unconscious conflicts
• Freud's theory places emphasis on how early childhood experiences can affect later development
• Freud's claims are based on his subjective interpretations of his patients dreams, they are often unreliable and open to bias
• Freud's theories are related to the unconscious mind which cannot be assessed, meaning his theories are unfalsifiable
• Psychoanalysis may take a long time and can become very expensive, the childhood conflicts that are revealed may be emotionally distressing and potentially inaccurate
• The focus is on the patient's past, rather than on the problems they are currently suffering and the unscientific research method means it is not possible to show cause and effect
• The approach is based on case studies of people in distress, the findings may not generalise to the wider population
• Biological Approach


  Psychologists believe that all behaviour is due to biological factors
• Biological Approach


  • Investigates how biological structures and processes influence behaviour
  • Genes affect behaviour and influence behavioural differences between people
• Heredity


  The passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through genes
• Genes


  Carry the instructions for characteristics e.g. intelligence, temperament, but how this characteristic develops depends partly on the influence of the environment
• Genotype


  The genetic code that is 'written' in the DNA of an individual's cells
• Phenotype


  The physical appearance that results from inherited information through genes
• Biological Psychologists


  • Believe that genetics can explain 'psychological traits' e.g. gender, intelligence and personality
  • Study genetics to see which genes make some people more likely to develop mental illnesses or addictions
• Studies


  • Twin studies
  • Adoption studies
• Gottesman study


  • Having an identical twin with schizophrenia gives you a 48% chance of developing the condition, compared to 17% in non-identical twins
• Identical twins share 100% of their genes


  If one suffers from schizophrenia, it might be expected that both twins will suffer the same conditions. However, this was only true in around half of the twin studies
• Identical twins tend to be treated more similarly than non-identical twins


  The family environment may also be a factor
• Maguire et al study

  • MRI scans showed the average size of the right posterior hippocampus was significantly larger in the taxi driver group compared to the control group
  • The increased size was relative to the amount of time the taxi driver had been working
• The study suggests that the hippocampus is responsible for storing spatial memories
• Biological approach


  • Uses the scientific method particularly the experimental methods
  • Experimental studies take place in highly controlled environments which makes them easy to replicate to check for reliability
• Biological approach


  • Provides clear predictions, e.g. about the effects of neurotransmitters
  • Has led to real life applications of biological research, e.g. drug treatments for depression
• The biological approach is reductionist and ignores other influences of behaviour e.g. nurture
• Other approaches see environmental and social factors as being important in explaining behaviour