Exam 3 Overview

• Glucose-Aerobic metabolism


  1. Glucose

  2. Glycolysis

  3. Pyruvate

  4. Citric Acid Cycle/Krebs Cycle/TCA Cycle

  5. Oxidative Phosphorylation

  
• Glycolysis


  Breakdown of glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules, producing 2 ATP

  
• Pyruvate breakdown


  Pyruvate converted to Acetyl CoA, which enters the Citric Acid Cycle
• Citric Acid Cycle/Krebs Cycle/TCA Cycle

  1. Acetyl CoA

  2. Citrate

  3. CO2 produced

  4. NADH, FADH2 produced
• Oxidative Phosphorylation


  1. NADH, FADH2 used in electron transport chain

  2. Proton gradient formed

  3. ATP Synthase uses proton gradient to produce ATP
• Glucose metabolism produces 32 ATP
• Anaerobic metabolism (fermentation) produces 2 ATP
• Homeostasis


  A monitoring and response system to deviations from the "set point"
• Types of feedback regulation

  • Negative feedback
  • Positive feedback
  • Feed forward
• Allosteric regulation


  Regulatory molecule binds to enzyme at a site other than the active site
• Functions of glucose


  • Allocation of energy
  • Metabolism
  • Thermoregulation
  • Storage and growth

  
• Insulin


  Hormone released when blood glucose is high, stimulates cells to take up glucose and store as glycogen

  
• Glucagon


  Hormone released when blood glucose is low, stimulates release of glucose from liver

  
• Types of diabetes


  • Type 1
  • Type 2
• Leptin


  Hormone secreted when full, tells hypothalamus to inhibit hunger

  
• Ghrelin


  Hormone that stimulates appetite, released by stomach

  
• Ozempics mimics the natural peptide hormone GLP-1 to treat type 2 diabetes and reduce appetite
• Immune systems


  • Innate
  • Adaptive
• Insulin resistance


  Cells of the body lose much of their ability to respond to insulin
• Insulin resistance


  • Associated with Obesity
• Treatment for insulin resistance

  1. Weight loss

  2. Diet
• Hypothalamus


  Control system for many functions of the body
• Functions controlled by the hypothalamus

  • Glucose regulation
  • Appetite and weight control

  
• Leptin


  A hormone secreted when you are full that tells your hypothalamus to inhibit the hunger sensation and for you to stop eating as fat and glucose levels are high

  
• Leptin


  Regulates appetite by telling the hypothalamus to inhibit appetite and increase metabolic rate

  
• Ghrelin


  Stimulates appetite, released by the stomach

  
• Partial defects in different components of signaling pathways can add to major effects and may be susceptible to disease
• High Ghrelin


  Low Leptin
• Low Leptin


  High appetite and weight
• Appetite and weight are controlled by multiple hormonal pathways
• Ozempics


  Mimics the natural peptide hormone GLP-1 to treat type 2 diabetes and reduce appetite
• Innate immune system


  • Nonspecific first line of defense for pathogens
  • No memory

  
• Innate immune system defenses

  • Skin
  • Tears
  • Low pH of stomach
• Fever


  Example of innate immune system response that raises the body's temperature to slow down the replication of pathogens
• Adaptive (Acquired) immune system

  • Highly specific antibodies made by B cells to neutralize pathogens
  • Has memory (gives us the ability to recover from an infection and then have protection when exposed to same pathogen)
  • Can distinguish between different epitopes found on an individual pathogen (antigen)

  
• Adaptive immune system responses

  • Humoral response
  • Cell-mediated response
• Physical and chemical barriers

  • Physical barriers include skin and mucous that block pathogens from entering the body
  • Chemical barriers include low pH and various antimicrobial enzymes that break down things that aren't supposed to be there
• Natural killer cells


  Look to make sure cells have MHC1 protein displayed on their membrane, and if they do not, the NK cells will kill them as they see it as an infected cell

  
• Interferons


  Cytokines released by infected cells with a virus that act as an alert system, causing neighboring cells to be lysed by Natural Killer cells

  
• T cells


  • Start from stem cells in bone marrow, then mature in the thymus
  • Have a T cell receptor (TCR) that is membrane bound and recognizes specific antigens