Beliefs

• Substantive definition of religion

  Exclusive definition focusing on belief in supernatural power or God
• Functional definition of religion

  Focuses on social or psychological functions that religion plays for an individual and society, very inclusive
• Social constructionist definition of religion


  Focuses on how each individual defines religion from their own experiences, no universal definition possible
• Features of religion


  • Beliefs in supernatural/incomprehensible powers or sacred symbols
  • Theology - set of teachings and beliefs
  • Practices - rituals or ceremonies to express beliefs
  • Institutions - organization of worshippers
  • Consequences - set of moral/ethical values to guide behavior
• Science is an open system


  Scientific research is open to scrutiny, criticism and testing by others
• Science is a closed system

  Based on a single paradigm that is difficult to challenge unless undermined by evidence
• Religion is an open system


  Able to adapt to social change, may dilute beliefs to stay relevant (internal secularization)
• Closed system of religion

  Contains clauses that protect it from disproof, has devices to undermine contradictory evidence (circularity, subsidiary explanations, denial of legitimacy to rivals)
• Case study of Azande belief in witchcraft

  • Natural events are not coincidental, misfortune is due to witchcraft, prevents grudges and encourages neighborly behavior
• Ideology


  Focuses on the political impact of religion, rather than just spiritual meaning
• Marxist view of ideology

  Revolution cannot occur until working class develops class consciousness, which is currently prevented by false class consciousness
• Gramscian view of ideology

  Ideological domination prevents class consciousness
• Postmodern view of meta-narratives

  Religious teachings are no longer accepted as truth at face value, due to growth of scientific fact, feminism, etc.
• Oakley's critique of Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory


  • Example of science acting as an ideology to justify gender inequality
• Mannheim's types of worldviews

  Ideological thought - resists social change, Utopian thought - attempts to promote social change
• Core principles of science


  • Pursuit of facts supported by evidence
  • Objectivity
  • Study of cause and effect based on reliable data
• Science can lead to conflicts with religion


  E.g. around medical treatments like abortion
• Science can contribute to secularization

  People change from believing religious meta-narratives to believing scientific facts and statistics
• Merton's CUDOS norms of science


  Communism, Universalism, Disinterestedness, Organized Skepticism
• Stages of transition from religious to scientific worldview

  • Theological - world/human destiny explained by gods and spirits
  • Metaphysical - combination of scientific views and belief in higher power
  • Scientific - purely scientific explanation
• Perspectives on science and religion

  • Interpretivist - scientific knowledge is socially constructed
  • Marxist - science promotes ruling class ideologies
  • Feminist - science promotes patriarchy
  • Postmodernist - science is no different to religion in claiming truth
• Durkheim's view of the sacred and profane


  Sacred - special material objects, Profane - normal everyday things. Worship of sacred symbols is a way of worshipping society.
• Parsons' view of religion

  Helps people cope with unforeseen events, promotes consensus and social stability in times of crisis
• Bellah's concept of civil religion


  Belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself, creates stability in multi-religious societies
• Malinowski's psychological functions of religion

  Coping with stress in situations of important but uncertain outcomes, and times of crisis like birth, marriage, death
• Marxist view of religion


  Justifies suffering as inevitable and god-given, legitimizes power of ruling class, opiate of the masses that cushions pain of oppression
• Neo-Marxist view of religion

  Not always part of the superstructure, can contain images of utopia that motivate people to challenge the powerful
• Religion as a force for social change


  In societies where religion is dominant, the ruling class can only be overpowered with support of the churches (e.g. liberation theology)
• Feminist view of religion


  Maintains patriarchy through sacred texts, religious laws, and making women think they are equal in the eyes of God but will be compensated in the afterlife
• Postmodernist view of religion

  Religious leaders use media to publicize their belief systems, creating a spiritual marketplace where people move between religions to find one that suits their identity
• New Age Movements (NAMs)

  Focus on spirituality rather than devotion to God, popular in postmodern society as people seek to feel better about tough situations
• Many religious see themselves as the true representative of God and do not tolerate challenge from rivals
• Religious leaders turned to the media to publicize their belief system
• Religious ideas have been disinvited as the media lifts them from their original context
• New Age movements (NAMs)

  Focus on spirituality rather than devotion to God
• NAMs have suffered in a postmodern society as many people just want to feel better and less stressed about tough situations
• There has been a dramatic decline in institutional religion as people become spiritual shoppers
• Spiritual shoppers


  People who move around and pick and choose a set of beliefs, just moving around religions depending on the point in their life that they are and which one they feel suits them better
• Religion as a conservative force helps with consensus which promotes social order and stability
• Functionalist view of religion

  Religion provides explanation for events that would otherwise be unexplained and provides security in the face of uncertainty