Theory and Methods

• Quantitative data is any data that could be represented as numbers and statistics and easily generalized to form a law of behavior
• Quantitative data is collected through methods including structured interviews and questionnaires
• Qualitative data is any verbal data involving opinions and meanings that are collected through methods such as unstructured views, observations and documents
• Primary data


  Data collected firsthand by researcher to perfectly suit the hypothesis of their research
• Secondary data


  Data collected by other researchers and applied to your modern hypotheses
• Key things to be looked at when producing research

  • Reliability
  • Representativeness
  • Generalizability
  • Validity
  • Objectivity
• Hypothetical deductive model


  1. Idea turns into research

  2. Produces findings
• Research methods


  • Social service surveys
  • Structured interviews
  • Unstructured interviews
  • Semi-structured interviews
  • Participant observation
  • Non-participant observation
  • Experiments
  • Personal documents
  • Official statistics
• Positivists prefer social surveys, structured interviews, experiments and official statistics
• Interpretivists prefer social facts, unstructured interviews, ethnography and participant observation
• Social facts


  Aspects of social life that influence and shape an individual's behavior and attitudes
• Examples of social facts

  • Laws
  • Values
  • Ideologies
  • Social structures
• Positivism


  • Assumes society has objective social facts
  • Society exerts influence on members
  • Prefers quantitative data
  • Researchers remain detached and value-free
• Interpretivism


  • Sees reality as constructed through meanings created by individuals
  • Prefers qualitative data
  • Micro approach focusing on small groups or individuals
  • Researchers develop rapport and empathy
• Theoretical issues to consider in research

  • Validity
  • Representativeness
  • Reliability
  • Objectivity
• Practical issues to consider in research

  • Time available
  • Funding and source
  • Requirements of funding bodies
  • Researcher skills
  • Subject matter and research opportunities
• Ethical issues in research

  • Informed consent
  • Confidentiality
  • Privacy
  • Protection from harm
  • Deception
• Consensus theories


  Believe all structures within society act in agreement, without which society would collapse
• Conflict theories


  See institutions in society as conflicting with each other, trying to gain power over the other
• Social action theories


  Focus on the actions of people in context of the meanings they assign to them and share between these actions and the actions of others
• Characteristics of modern society

  • Production central
  • Heavy capitalism
  • Nuclear family norm
  • Identities built on class and sex
  • Media reflects reality
  • Strong institutions binding people together
• Characteristics of postmodern society

  • Service sector and consumption central
  • Declining power of national state
  • Disorganized capitalism
  • Diverse and fragmented culture and religion
  • Identities shaped by freedom
  • Unwillingness to believe meta-narratives
• Perspectives on sociology of science

  • Positivist
  • Popper
  • Kuhn
  • Realist
  • Postmodernist
• Reliability


  The ability to repeat the research and get similar results
• Validity


  Assesses whether research accurately reflects the reality of those being studied
• Objectivity


  Research is free from a researcher's personal values and beliefs
• Representativeness


  The sample used accurately represents the proportions of the target population
• Subjectivity


  Social interests, values and beliefs of the researcher impact the research and data interpretation
• Objectivity


  (in research) Personal beliefs are independent of subject matter and the research
• Positivists argue sociology should be value-free as it uses objective methods
• Marxists and feminists argue sociology cannot be value-free as research is designed to help find solutions to societal issues
• New right argue sociology exaggerates the defects of capitalism and ignores the benefits, so it cannot be value-free
• Postmodernists argue there is no such thing as value-free observation, so sociology cannot be applied to society in the same way as natural science
• Ways sociology influences social policy

  • Provides awareness of cultural differences
  • Provides self-awareness of social status
  • Changes assumptions
  • Provides theoretical framework
  • Provides practical professional knowledge
  • Identifies social problems
  • Provides evidence for policies
  • Identifies consequences of policies
  • Assesses if policies are working
• Influences on social policy making

  • Money available for implementation
  • Research that supports hostility towards certain groups
  • Media portrayal of issues
  • Religious organizations' moral frameworks
  • Willingness and power to care for less powerful
  • Whether topic is considered a problem
• Perspectives on social policies

  • Functionalist - helps contribute to social order
  • Labeling theory - critical of how criminal justice system labels criminals
  • Marxist - hides and justifies exploitation
  • Left-realist - inner city crime can only be reduced by social policy
  • Radical feminist - enforces women's subordination
  • Liberal feminist - has brought about gender equality
  • New right - against state interference and undermining responsibility