Culture

• Cross-cultural research is noted for its valuable contribution to the nature-nurture debate in gender. For instance, if a particular gender-role behaviour appears to be consistent across different cultures, we might conclude that this represents an innate, biological difference between males and females. Conversely, if we find that some gender-role behaviours are culturally specific we might assume that its due to the influence of shared norms and socialisation differences
• Cultural differences (nurture)

  One of the earliest cross-cultural studies of gender roles was carried out by Margaret Mead of cultural groups in Papa New Guinea:

  • The Arapesh were gentle and responsive

  • The Mundugumor were aggressive and hostile

  • The Tchambuli women were dominant and they organised village life, men were passive and considered to be 'decorative’
• Cultural differences

  This suggests that there may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender, and that gender roles may be culturally determined.

  Mead conceded that she had underestimated the universal nature of many gender-typical behaviours. However, she went on to argue that the extent to which innate behaviours are expressed is largely the result of cultural norms.
• Cultural similarities

  It is also the case that there are many cross-cultural similarities in gender roles.

  Buss found consistent patterns in mate preference in 37 countries across all continents.

  In all cultures, women sought men who could offer wealth and resources, whilst men looked for youth and physical attractiveness in a potential partner.

  a study revealed that in most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines
• A strength is research support

  Hofstede argues that in industrialised cultures the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace and away from the domestic sphere.

  This has led to a breakdown of traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialised societies.

  in traditional societies, women and men still occupy their traditional role

  This suggests that gender roles are very much determined by cultural context.
• One limitation is that Mead's cross- cultural research has since been criticised for observer bias and ethnocentrism.

  Mead has been accused of making generalisations based on a short period of study.

  Freeman conducted a follow- up study of people from Papua New Guinea, he argued that Mead's findings were flawed as she had been misled by some of her participants, and that her preconceptions of what she would find had influenced her reading of events.

  This suggests that Mead's interpretations may not have been objective and calls into question the

  conclusions that she drew.