Families & Households

• Different perspectives of the functions of the family

  • Functionalists
  • The New Right
  • Marxist
  • Liberal Feminists
  • Marxist Feminist
  • Radical Feminist
  • Difference Feminist
  • Personal Life View
• Functionalists


  • Murdock (1949) - society is based on a value consensus - Murdock identifies four main functions: Sex Drive (satisfaction), Reproduction, Socialisation of the young, Economic Needs
  • Parsons (1955) - Biological differences - husbands have an instrumental role and wives have an expressive role → division of labour is based on biological differences
• The New Right


  • Murray (1989) - Children need a male and female role model for correct socialisation. Single parent families cost too much in welfare benefits - men should be the breadwinner and women the homemakers. Against cohabitation, divorce & believe marriage is the right way. Dependency culture, family role is being undermined because the state is making people depend on it
• Marxist


  • Engels (1884) & Condry (2007): Oppression of poorer families. The nuclear family promotes inheritance. Zaretsky's - Unit of consumption: Family structure creates demands for goods. 'False Needs'. Functions of the Family Help maintain CAPITALISM: Inheritance of property, Ideological Function: family socialises members to accept their place, Family is the unit of consumption
• Liberal Feminists


  • Sommerville : Gradual Progress. Optimistic view on the family, focus on increased equality between men and women and the fact many relationships view the two partners as equal. Emergence of the 'new man' who will take on active roles in the household with housework and childcare.
• Marxist Feminist


  • Ansley (1972): Capitalism is the main source of women oppression, not patriarchy. Women serve capitalism in these ways: Women look after men who work for the bosses, Men take out their frustration of work out on wives and children, Women give birth to the next generation of workers, Women are used as a reserve army of labour
• Radical Feminist


  • Greer - The Female Eunuch 1970: Men benefit more from family life than women, Men do very little compared to women in terms of housework, Marriage is a prison, Men use violence against women if they don't get their way, Support family diversity (gay families & single parent) - disagree that nuclear is the right way, Support divorce since it allows women to be free from marriages
• Difference Feminist


  • Black Feminism - Most white feminists group all women together and forget about ethnic differences. African-Caribbean women are more likely to be single parents than white or Asian women. Asian women may experience more patriarchy in their family compared to white women and have to do more housework and childcare. Arranged marriages can be an issue.
• Personal Life View


  • Nordquist - Fictive Kin - Chosen families. Reject modern theories. Increased family diversity. Family members are passive and manipulated (fem - women by men, marx- women by the rich). Family relationships are not just based on blood ties & marriage ties. People now have platonic relationships.
• Social Policies


  Laws made by the government which aim to improve society
• Functionalist view of social policy

  • Fletcher - health education and housing policies have led to a welfare state which supports the family in completing its functions
• New Right view of social policy

  • Are strong believers that the conventional heterosexual nuclear family is self sufficient - therefore believe state policies have had a negative influence on society promoting family diversity and the disintegration of society
• Feminist view of social policy

  • See policies as assuming what a normal family is a patriarchal nuclear family with a male breadwinner and a female homemaker - therefore social policies ensure the maintenance of this family type - Childcare policies and caring for the elderly
• Donzelot (1977) on social policy


  • The state has power & control through use of social policy. Uses Foucault's theory of 'state surveillance' because doctors, social workers and teachers use their role to check on people and exercise power over them by 'reporting' back to the government
• New Right view of social policy

  • Almond (2006) - divorce is too easy, and civil partnership laws encourage gay & lesbian couples; she says this is wrong because a family needs heterosexual fam, and tax laws work against married couples. Murray (1990) - state welfare benefits are too generous - council housing for unmarried mothers, and cash payments for single mothers. 'Perverse Incentives' - dads/fathers do not accept financial responsibility, teenage girls get pregnant and get a council house & lone parent families are encouraged- increases crime rate, no discipline among young men. State Paternalism.
• Changes in social policy by government

  • 1979-97 Conservative (Thatcher) - Banning the promotion of homosexuality, Child Support Agency, Divorce made easier
  • 1997-2010 Labour (Blair) - Longer maternity leave, Working Family Tax Credits, Equal rights for same- sex couples
  • 2010 -15 Conservative (Cameron) - Introduced gay marriage
  • 2015- present Conservative - No blame divorce (2022)
• Family Diversity


  The difference between families, in terms of the organisations, structure and roles within the family
• Types of family diversity

  • Marriage
  • Cohabitation
  • Same sex relationships
  • One person households
• Murdock on family diversity


  • Doesn't believe in family diversity and that the nuclear family is natural and universal
• Wilmott on family diversity

  • Family diversity has been exaggerated but family structure has changed to a dispersed extended family
• Brannan on family diversity


  • Believes that family structures have changed and the new family type is the beanpole family
• Anderson on family diversity

  • Argues family diversity has always been present, not just in terms of power, roles and relationships
• Reasons for changes in family patterns

  • Changes in Law
  • Declining Stigma and Changing attitudes
  • Secularisation
  • Rising expectations of marriage
  • Womens increased financial independence
• Total Fertility Rate


  The number of children who would be born per woman or per 1000 women
• General Fertility Rate


  Number of live births per 1000 women of reproductive age in a population per year
• Birth Rate


  The number of live births per 1000 of population per year
• Reasons for the decline in the birth rate

  • Decline in infant mortality rate
  • Changing norms about what children have a right to expect from their parents in material terms
  • Changes in female roles
  • Divorce
• Harper on reasons for the decline in birth rate

  • The education of women is the most important reason for the long term fall in birth and fertility rates. Because women are choosing careers, to not have children, delay having children or having less children
• Reasons for the decline in Infant Mortality Rate

  • Improved housing
  • Improved sanitation & hygiene
  • Better nutrition
  • Improved natal care (pre natal & antenatal hospitals and midwives)
  • Immunisation of children (NHS established 1948)
• Child centredness


  Parents are choosing smaller families, less children - to devote more love, time and money
• Recent trends in birth rate

  • Birth rate has decreased in the 20th century but increased slightly in the 21st
  • Due to immigration because immigrant families on average have more children
  • Cultural reasons e.g. not using contraception
• Effects of changes in birth and fertility rates

  • Smaller families mean that women are more likely to be free to go out to work, creating the dual earner couple typical of many professional families
  • Dependency ratio - Relationship between the size of the working or productive part of the population and the size of the non-working or dependent part of the population
  • Consequences for public services and policies - Fewer schools and maternity and child health services may be needed, Affects the cost of maternity and paternity leave and the types of housing that need to be built
  • Ageing population - One effect of women having fewer babies is that the average age of the population is rising. There are more old people relative to young people
• Factors affecting the ageing population

  • Declining birth rate
  • Increasing life expectancy
• Children make up a large part of the dependent population, so a fall in the number of children reduces the 'burden of dependency' on the working population
• Falling fertility rates mean fewer children. Childhood may become a lonelier experience as fewer children will have siblings and more childless adults may mean fewer voices speaking up in support of children's interests
• A lower birth rate has consequences for public services. Fewer schools and maternity and child health services may be needed. Affects the cost of maternity and paternity leave and the types of housing that need to be built
• One effect of women having fewer babies is that the average age of the population is rising. There are more old people relative to young people
• Ageing population


  The age of the UK population is getting older
• Percentage of population by age group

  • 0.4% aged 85+ in 1966
  • 1.6% aged 85+ in 2016
  • 5.1% aged 85+ estimated in 2066
  • 2.0% aged 75-84 in 1966
  • 3.8% aged 75-84 in 2016
  • 7.2% aged 75-84 estimated in 2066
  • 13.6% aged 16+ in 1966
  • 15.4% aged 16+ in 2016
  • 13.2% aged 16+ estimated in 2066
• Life expectancy in 2020 was 79.0 years for males and 82.9 years for females