Exam 2

• What are the demographics of robbery offending and victimization? 
• How is serial killing defined? Is there a standard definition? 

  • Serial: Typically defined as either 4 or more murders, OR 3 or more murders, committed over a time period longer than a month (weeks, months, or years). 
  • Mass: Typically defined as either 4 or more murders, OR 3 or more murders, committed at one time and one place (no “cooling off” period between homicides).
  • Spree: Typically defined as either 3 or more murders committed in a frenzy of criminal activity over a few days (within a 30-day period).
• How common is serial murder? Is it increasing or decreasing?   

  • Probably between 10 and 100 killers at any given time
  • Maybe 100-150 victims a year 
  • So, up to 1% of all homicide victims per year
  • The detection of the crime could be increasing but not the number
• How does the nature of serial murder differ from other forms of murder (i.e., offenders, victims, weapons, and/or context)?   

  • Victim is usually vulnerable (75% are women)
  • Offender is most likely male (17% female)
  • About 80% of killers are white
  • Serial murder is more likely to involve hands-on or sexual activity, very rarely guns
• What does Fox and Levin mean by linkage blindness?

  • Linkage blindness -> inability of investigators to connect homicides separated over time and space to the activities of a single perpetrator (particularly murder sprees that cross jurisdictional boundaries)
• Fox and Levin - thrill killers

  • sexual sadism and dominance
• Fox and Levin - mission killers

  • want to reform the world
• Fox and Levin - expedience killers

  • for profit or to protect themselves from perceived threat
• How is the nature of mass murder different from other forms or murder, including serial murder and spree murder? 

  • Mass murder is usually planned for months
  • Do not care about obstacles
  • Offender wants to die on scene
  • Revenge is the most common theme
  • Many victims in same place (not over period of time like serial or spree)
• According to Fox and Levin, why hasn't mass murder received the same attention as serial murder, historically? 

  • Not much challenge for law enforcement
  • Not the same level of public fear and anxiety
  • Mass killers do not survive the crime
  • Not as sensational as serial murder
• What are the predisposers, precipitants, and facilitators of mass murder? 

  • Predisposers -> frustrated and see themselves as victims, not criminals but can be mentally unstable
  • Precipitants -> triggering event or trauma
  • Facilitators -> lack of emotional support, can create those conditions but is not necessary
• What are the limits of proposed solutions?

  • No criminal record
  • Can still get a hold of guns online or similar
  • Guns are "too available" but ban might not help the most extreme violence anyway
• What are the demographics of robbery victimization?  

  • Men are twice as likely to be a victim compared to women
  • Blacks are twice as likely to be victims compared to whites
  • 21-24 year olds are the most common victim, then 18-20
  • Low income is more victimized (8x)
• What are the demographics of robbery offending?

  • 85-90% are men
  • 55% are black
  • 60% are under 25
• Does robbery ever involve acquaintances? If so, are the motivations different those that involve strangers?  

  • No, at least most of the time
  • More likely to involve strangers
  • More violent if offender and victim knows each other
• Where is robbery most likely to occur? What is the typical take?  

  • Most likely on the street in suburb of larger city
  • Typical take is just under $800
• What are the different types of robbers? Is robbery random and/or opportunistic? Is there a difference?  

  • Professional -> target commercial establishments, more organized and active, more likely to use a firearm
  • Opportunistic -> not planned, low risk victims, independent work
•  How often do robberies involve injury? How does victim resistance relate to injury?  

  • 38% (10% serious injury)
  • Probably, but there is no way to be sure
• Are there differences/similarities in how and why men and women commit robbery?

  • Men -> firearms, in it for money and status, not going for women because it looks weak
  • Women -> target women, money and drugs etc, typically physical force involved
• How can routine activities, lifestyle theory, and neutralization theory help us understand robbery?  

  • Robbers tend to not attach elderly or children because they don't deserve it
  • Rational decisions are used
  • Offenders do not feel bad about themselves
• Old (2013) rape definition

  Penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim
• New rape definition

  Includes instances in which the victim is incapable of giving consent because of temporary or permanent mental or physical incapacity (e.g., due to the influence of drugs or alcohol or because of age)
• UCR rape definition


  Penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim
• NIBRS rape definition


  Without the consent of the victim
• NCVS rape definition


  Coerced or forced sexual intercourse
• What are the demographics of rape victimization (age, sex, race, marital status, etc.)? 

  • 9/10 are female
  • 82% under 18 are female
  • Females age 16-19 are at the highest risk
  • Victims are most likely not married yet
• What is date rape? How common is date rape? 

  • Rape committed with someone you've been on a date with
  • Very common in 16-24 year olds
• Discuss the victim-offender relationship for rape and sexual assault. How does it compare to other violent offenses?  

  • The relationship is most likely known, casual acquaintance
• Are victims likely to report the offense to the police? Why or why not? 

  • If there is a stranger involved, more likelihood of reporting
  • Not reporting because they think it's a personal matter
• When and where is rape most likely to occur? 

  • Urban areas of larger cities
  • 68% occur between 6pm and 6am
• Do rapes typically involve weapons and/or serious injuries? Is rape likely to end in homicide? (no) Should victims resist? (yes)  

  • In more than 70% of cases, no weapons are used
  • About 40% report injury (20% needs treatment)
  • Rapes are very unlikely to end in homicide
• Groth's - power reassurance (compensatory)

  • Suggests an underlying lack of confidence and inadequacy and a misguided belief that the sex act is consensual, expressed through minimal force and low confidence
• Groth's - power assertive (exploitative)

  • Suggests an underlying lack of confidence and inadequacy, expressed through a need for control, mastery, and humiliation of the victim while demonstrating authority
• Groth's - anger retaliatory

  • Offender behaviors suggest a great deal of displaced rage and violence toward a specific person, group (women), institution, or symbol of these. Expressive of hostility or anger. Impulsive and triggered by interpersonal conflict
• Groth's - anger excitation (sadistic)

  • The offender gets sexual gratification or excitement from inflicting pain and suffering on the victim. Involve significant premeditation in selecting victims
• Groth's - opportunistic

  • The offender is out to satisfy immediate sexual impulses, often while committing another crime (e.g., burglary)
• Feminist theories


  • Explain rape as resulting from male attitudes
• Brownmiller's theory


  • Men have enjoyed a historical power advantage over women, resulting in the unequal status and unfair treatment of women
• Traditional Socialization Patterns


  • Have encouraged men to associate masculinity with power, dominance, strength, virility, and superiority and femininity with submissiveness, passivity, and weakness
• Cultural Expectations


  • Includes those embodied in male-dominated legislative and justice systems; have historically viewed women as little more than male property