pcog

• Carbohydrates


  AKA: Saccharides
• Aldohexose


  • Glucose (6 membered ring)
  • C6(H2O)6

  
• Ketohexose


  • Fructose (5 membered ring)
  • C5(H2O)5
• Classification of carbohydrates


  • Monosaccharides
  • Disaccharides
  • Oligosaccharides
  • Polysaccharides
• Classification of monosaccharides based on number of carbon atoms

  • Diose (C2(H2O)2)
  • Triose (C3(H2O)3)
  • Tetrose (C4(H2O)4)
  • Pentose (C5(H2O)5)
  • Hexose (C6(H2O)6)
  • Heptose (C7(H2O)7)
  • Octose (C8(H2O)8)
  • Nanose (C9(H2O)9)

  
• D vs L isomers

  • Enantiomers: optical isomers that spin polarized light in right/left
  • Penultimate carbon: the farthest chiral carbon from the carbonyl carbon
• Xylose


  • AKA: wood sugar
  • Obtained by boiling corn cobs, straw or similar materials with dilute acid (HCl) to hydrolyze the xylan polymer
  • Use: Diagnostic aid for intestinal malabsorption

  
• Ribose


  • Sugar in RNA/nucleic acid
• Glucose


  • Aldohexose
  • AKA: Dextrose/Blood Sugar/Grape Sugar/Physiologic Sugar
  • Use: nutrient and sweetening agent
  • Can also be produced via hydrolysis of maltose, sucrose and lactose

  
• Fructose


  • Ketohexose
  • AKA: levulose or fruit sugar
  • Fructose is a ketone sugar that occurs naturally in most sweet fruits and in honey
  • Sweetest monosaccharide
  • Constituent of table sugar and inulin

  
• Sucrose


  • AKA: table sugar/invert sugar
  • Fructose (strongly levorotatory) + Glucose
  • Used: Simple sugar NF or table sugar
  • Sources: Sugar Cane, Sugar Beets, Sugar Maple
  • Alpha-1,2 glycosidic bonds

  
• Maltose


  • AKA: Malt sugar or beer sugar
  • Glucose + Glucose
  • Obtained by Germination of Barley
  • Alpha-1,4 Glycosidic bonds
  • Trans

  
• Lactose


  • AKA: Milk sugar
  • Glucose + Galactose
  • Cow's milk
  • Trans
  • Isolation: Cheese production
  • Beta-1,4 glycosidic bond

  
• Lactose intolerance
• Lactulose


  • A laxative made from lactose. It treats chronic constipation and conditions that could result from liver disease.
  • Synthetic, non-absorbable sugar

  
• Oligosaccharides


  • Melezitose (glu-fru-glu)
  • Gentianose (glu-glu-fru)
  • Planteose (glue-fru-gal)
  • Raffinose (Glu-fru-gal)
  • Manneotriose (2 mannopyranosyl + 1 mannopyranose)
  • Rhamninose (rha-rha-gal)
  • Scillatriose (mahaba)
  • Stachyose (4 sucrose)
• Starch


  • Use as excipient and resiticant
  • Sources: Corn, Potato, Wheat
  • Starch preparations: Pregelatinized starch, Sodium starch glycolate, Hetastarch

  
• Homoglycans


  • Starch

  
• Heteroglycans


  • Gums and mucilages
  • Shurbs and tree exudates
  • Marine gums
  • Seed gum
  • Microbial gums
  • Plant extract (Pectin)
• Amylose


  • 15-20% of starch, deep blue with iodine test, alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds

  
• Amylopectin


  • 80-85% of starch, blue violet to purple with iodine test, alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds and alpha-1,6 at the branch points

  
• Malic acid is obtained from expressed fresh, ripe fruit of Prunus cerasus (Cherry) and is used as a flavored vehicle in sour drugs
• Citric acid was first isolated in crystal form from lemon juice by Scheele in 1784 and may be obtained from fermentation of sucrose. It is used as an acidulant for effervescent tablets, a buffer, and an alkalizer and anticoagulant
• Lactic acid is available as a colorless or yellowish, nearly odorless syrupy liquid and is an ingredient of electrolyte replenishers
• Tartaric acid is a dicarboxylic acid obtained as a by-product of the wine industry. It is a product of reductase, used as an acidant for oral preparations, and in buffer systems
• Mannitol


  • Obtained by reduction of mannose or by isolation from Manna (Fraxinus ornus aka. Manna Ash). Used as a diagnostic agent, osmotic diuretic, and tablet diluent
• Sorbitol


  • Obtained by reduction of glucose from ripe berries of Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia). Used as a humectant and ingredient in toothpaste/chewing gum
• Inulin


  • From Blue Dandelion or Chicory (Chiorium intybus) and Corn flower (Echinaceae purpurea). Used as a diagnostic aid for renal dysfunction
• Dextran


  • Produced by microbes (Leukonostic mesenteroids), alpha 1-6 polyglucan, action: conversion of sucrose to dextran via transglucoxylase

  
• Cellulose


  • Hair of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum, Malvaceae). Preparations: Absorbent cotton, Flexible Collodion
• Tragacanth


  • Use: Suspending agent, Emulsifying agent. Constituents: Tragacanthin (water soluble, forms a colloid), Bassorin (water insoluble, forms a gel)
• Acacia


  • Use: stabilizer, emulsifier, and thickening agent. Dried gummy exudate of Acacia senegal (Febaceae & Leguminoceae). Constituents: Arabin (a complex mixture of calcium, magnesium, and potassium salts of Arabic acid), Arabic acid (a branched polysaccharide that yields L-arabinose, D-galactose, D-glucoronic acid, and L-rhamnose on hydrolysis)
• Ghatti gum


  • Use: substitute for Acacia. AKA: Indian gum. From Anogeissus latifolia (Compretaceae)
• Karaya gum


  • AKA: sterculia gum or Indian tragacanth. From areol gummy exudate of Sterculia urens, S. vilosa, S. tragacantha (Sterculiaceae). Use: bulk laxative, emulsifying agent, dental adhesive
• Algin


  • Use: antacid, suspending agent. Found in Sodium alginine
• Agar


  • Use: stiffening agent in preparation of culture media. Known as Japanese Isinglas from Gelidium cartilageneum (Gelidiaceae). Ex: Danish agar
• Carrageenan


  • From red algae and seaweeds Irish moss- Chrondus crispus, Mastocarpus stellatus- Gigartina mamillosa (Gigartinaceae)
• Furcellarian


  • Red algae, Furcellaria fastigiata. Hydrocolloid is like k-carrageenan
• Plantago


  • From seed coat of Plantago psyllium, indica, ovata (blonde) (Plantaginaceae). Plantain seed
• Guar gum


  • From endosperm of seed, Cyamopsis tetragonoblus (Fabaceae). Guaran