topic 2 -1

• Identical twins

  Had higher concordance rates for schizophrenia (48%)
• Non-identical twins

  Had 17% concordance rates for schizophrenia
• The higher concordance rates for schizophrenia in identical twins compared to non-identical twins shows strong evidence for genetic contribution to schizophrenia
• Dopamine hypothesis

  • Dopamine is implicated in schizophrenia
  • Neurotransmitter involved in different functions
  • Carlsson suggested schizophrenia is caused by cells firing too easily or too often, leading to excess dopamine, which relates to hallucinations
• Schizophrenia sufferers have twice the number of D2 receptors than non-schizophrenia individuals
• The over-activity in key brain parts caused by the increased number of D2 receptors leads to the derailment, problems focusing attention, hallucinations and delusions experienced by schizophrenia sufferers
• Brain abnormality explanation for mental illness

  • Focuses on abnormalities in brain structure
  • Head injury is linked to increased risk of mental disorder
  • 65% of 100,000 people with head injury had increased chance of schizophrenia
• Enlarged ventricle hypothesis

  • Non-schizophrenia individuals have larger right ventricle
  • Schizophrenia individuals have larger left ventricle, leading to no asymmetry in the brain
  • This leads to the negative symptom of low motivation from the ventral striatum
  • Low activation in superior temporal gyrus and anterior cingulate gyrus when experiencing auditory hallucinations
• Atypical antipsychotics

  • Drugs with fewer side effects, e.g. clozapine
  • Developed in 1970s
  • Work on serotonin and glutamate receptors to reduce depression and anxiety, enhancing mood, prescribed when patient is at risk of suicide
• Typical antipsychotics

  • Drugs with more side effects, e.g. chlorpromazine
  • Developed in 1950s
  • Act as dopamine antagonists to reduce dopamine levels, blocking dopamine receptors on post-synaptic neurons, reducing positive symptoms such as hallucinations, but have a sedative effect
• Tardive dyskinesia, an involuntary movement of the mouth and tongue, is a severe side effect caused by typical antipsychotic drugs, and is irreversible in 75% of cases
• Chlorpromazine reduces symptoms in around 65% of cases, mostly positive symptoms, while clozapine is effective in 85% of cases, reducing both negative and positive symptoms
• Drug therapy is evaluated positively in terms of ethical protection from harm and increased quality of life, and research shows a lower relapse rate
• Drug therapy is also evaluated negatively, with patients becoming "zombified" for the benefit of family and friends, not being 100% effective, and having side effects
• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

  • Administering an electric shock to the head to induce a seizure, as a last resort
  • The process involves attaching a device to one or both temples, administering anaesthetics or muscle relaxants, and inducing a seizure lasting 15-60 seconds
  • ECT is repeated 6-12 times over 2-3 weeks
• ECT is effective almost immediately, and is particularly helpful for catatonic behaviour
• Using both clozapine and ECT provides the best outcome, with a 71% success rate compared to 40% with ECT alone
• The side effects of ECT include memory and anxiety problems, and rarely, heart problems
• Background

  If a parent had a mental disorder, there is an increased likelihood of the child also having a mental disorder
• The aim of the study was to investigate whether having two parents with mental disorders would increase the probability that their child would also be diagnosed with a mental disorder
• Method

  Quasi-experiment, national cohort study of the population born between 1968-1997 in the Danish civil registration system, with a sample size of 3.7 million
• Independent Variable (IV)

  Schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or depression, using the ICD
• Dependent Variable (DV)

  Diagnosis of any mental illness
• Groups

  • Group A - 2 parents with diagnosis of either disorder
  • Group B - 1 parent with it
  • Group C - neither parent
  • Group D - a group of general public
• The results showed that with two parents having schizophrenia, the risk of the child also having schizophrenia was 27.3%, and the risk of the child having any other mental illness was 67.5%
• The results showed that with two parents having schizophrenia or related conditions, the risk of the child also having schizophrenia was 39.2%
• The results showed that with one parent having schizophrenia, the risk of the child also having schizophrenia was 7%, and the risk of the child having any other mental illness was 11.9%
• The results showed that with neither parent having schizophrenia, the risk of the child having schizophrenia was 1.12%, and the risk of the child having any other mental illness was 14.1%
• The results showed that with two parents having bipolar disorder, the risk of the child also having bipolar disorder was 24.95%, and the risk of the child having any other mental illness was 44.2%
• The results showed that with one parent having bipolar disorder, the risk of the child also having bipolar disorder was 4.4%, and the risk of the child having any other mental illness was 9.2%
• The conclusions support the findings of other studies, and can be useful for people making decisions about marriage, children, and future planning, but also acknowledge the issue of stigma
• The study claims that the ICD is a valid measure of mental illness