Organics

• Stereoisomerism


  C12 isomerism
• Reactions of alkane


  1. Combustion (complete)

  2. Combustion (incomplete)

  3. Free radical substitution (initiation, propagation, termination)
• Alkane


  Saturated hydrocarbon
• σ bond


  • Direct overlap of 2 sigma orbitals
  • Sideways overlap of 2 p orbitals
• Electrophile


  Electron pair acceptor
• Nucleophile


  Electron pair donor
• Reactions of alkenes


  1. Addition (with halogens, hydrogen halides, water)

  2. Oxidation (with KMnO4)

  3. Hydration (with steam)
• Heterolytic bond fission results in the formation of ions
• Markovnikov's rule


  The hydrogen from the hydrogen molecule attached to the carbon atom on the alkene with the largest numbers of Hs already directly attached
• Tests for alkenes: bromine water (brown to colourless)
• Polymers


  • Addition polymerisation
  • Waste polymers can be separated into specific types
  • Recycling, incineration, use as feedstock for cracking
• Chemists can contribute to more sustainable use of materials by using safe, environmentally friendly reactants, using renewable raw materials, and using catalysts
• Chemists limit the problem caused by polymer disposal by developing biodegradable polymers and removing toxic waste gases caused by incineration of plastics
• Primary, secondary, tertiary haloalkanes

  Based on the number of alkyl groups attached to the carbon with the halogen
• Reactions of haloalkanes


  1. Substitution (with KOH, alcoholic KCN, NH3)

  2. Elimination (with KOH in ethanol)
• Alkyl inductive effect


  Primary < secondary < tertiary alkyl groups tend to donate electrons
• 1. I bond


  Weakest, lowest bond enthalpy, longer bond length
• Primary, secondary, tertiary alcohols

  Based on the number of alkyl groups attached to the carbon with the -OH group
• Reactions of alcohols


  1. Combustion

  2. Conversion to haloalkanes (with PCl5, HBr, PI3)

  3. Oxidation (to aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids)

  4. Dehydration (to alkenes)
• Alcohols vs carbonyl compounds

  • Alcohols can form intermolecular hydrogen bonds, carbonyl compounds cannot
• Reactions of carbonyl compounds

  1. Fehling's test (aldehydes only)

  2. Tollens' test (aldehydes only)

  3. Oxidation (aldehydes to carboxylic acids)

  4. Reduction (with LiAlH4)
• Reactions of carbonyl compounds

  1. Nucleophilic addition (with HCN, 2,4-DNPH)

  2. Iodoform test (for methyl ketones)
• Carboxylic acid


  Functional group -COOH
• Preparation of carboxylic acids

  1. Oxidation of primary alcohols

  2. Oxidation of aldehydes

  3. Hydrolysis of nitriles
• Reactions of carboxylic acids

  1. Reduction (with LiAlH4)

  2. Salt formation (with metals, bases, carbonates)

  3. Esterification (with alcohols and acid catalyst)
• Reactions of acyl chlorides

  1. Hydrolysis (with water)

  2. Esterification (with alcohols)

  3. Amide formation (with ammonia)
• Hydrolysis of Nitriles


  dilute H₂104 →neas under reflux
• Reactions of carncrylic acid

  • carboxylic acid accono i
  • Reagent LIAIHY in any emner
  • Condinen: room temp and pressure
  • Type of reaction: Reduction
• Bases to produce saits

  1. acid + metal → salt + H₂

  2. acid + alkali → salt + H₂O

  3. acid + carbonate → salt + H2O +CO₂
• Carboxylic acid acyl chloride

  1. Reagent : PLIS

  2. Condition: room temp

  3. Observation: misty fumes
• Alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst

  1. Type of reaction: esterification

  2. carboxylic acid + alcohol → ester + water
• Reactions of acyl chloride

  1. Acyl chloride + water → carboxylic acid + HCl (g)

  2. Acyl chloride + alcohol → ester + HCl (g)

  3. Acyl chloride + ammonia → amide

  4. Acyl chloride + primary amine → secondary amide
• Hydrolysis of esters


  1. with acid: reagent dilute HCl, condition heat under reflux

  2. with alkaline: reagent dilute NaOH, condition heat under reflux
• Polyesters


  1. dicarboxylic acid + diol → polyester + water

  2. diacylchloride + diol → polyester + HCl
• Common polyester


  • Terylene - used in clothing, tire cords
• Polyester formation


  n (dicarboxylic acid) + n (diol) → n (polyester) + (2n-1) H₂O
• Kekule suggested the structure of Benzene consists of alternating single and double covalent bonds, but this structure is not correct as it suggests all the C-C bonds are the same length
• Hydrogenation of cyclohexane


  • 120 kJ mol⁻¹
• Hydrogenation of Benzene (Kekule)

  360 kJ mol⁻¹
• Accurate hydrogenation of Benzene

  • 208 kJ mol⁻¹