learnt approaches

• psychology is a recent discipline containing competing approaches, which were developed at different points in history

  • socrates, aristotle & plato: questioned whether human behaviour is innate & considered a connection between the mind, body & soul
  • descartes: the mind & body are separate entities (caretisan dualism)
  • john locke: proposed empiricism; tabula rasa; monism - the mind & the body are the same thing
  • darwin: exhibit certain behaviour for survival
  • wilhelm wundt: first psychologist
• wilhelm wundt believed that all facets of behaviour including the mind can be studied scientifically, in a laboratory setting

  • structuralism: breaking down behaviours into their basic element; isolating conscious thoughts into basic structures of thoughts, processes and images
  • experimental psychology is the preferred method of studying human behaviour
• introspection: the process by which a person gains knowledge about their mental & emotional states by 'looking into' / observing one's own thoughts and feelings. it is the systematic analysis of our conscious experience of a stimulus
• strengths of introspection

  + used to treat gambling addictions: Griffiths studied the irrational beliefs of gamblers asking them to think out loud when playing

  + scientific method that procedures reliable as the same stimulus in each study, allowing for replication under standardised conditions
• weaknesses of introspection

  -- reliant on the efforts of the participant: how well they articulate themselves and if they can't be bothered, they might not accurately report all their thoughts

  -- assumes we're aware of our thoughts & reasoning but we often do things without conscious thought: this would mean that we have nothing to report back; Nisbett & Wilson found that people have little to no access to higher order cognitive processes

  -- introspection can't be verified as thoughts can't be seen, so we can't truly measure what is recorded scientifically
• wundt's scientific method is based on 2 assumptions:

  1. all behaviour is seen as being determined
  2. if all behaviour is determined, then it should be possible to predict how humans would behave in different conditions (predictability)

  • scientific method refers to the use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic & replicable
  • empiricism: we gain knowledge through experience of observations & experiments providing evidence
• strength of the scientific method

  + objective: studies are based on systematic methods of observations & scientific methods

  + deterministic: establish causes of behaviour through methods that produce empirical data

  + self-corrective: scientific knowledge can be retested, and either be adapted or rejected
• weaknesses of the scientific method

  -- low mundane realism & low ecological validity -> ungeneralisable: when concentrating on objectivity and control, contrived settings can be created, which is not a true representative of human behaviour, meaning findings cannot be generalised to wider society

  -- low validity: created/artificial settings which affects the validity of behaviour

  -- not all aspects of psychology can be observed and tested
• approaches timeline

  1800s: Wundt used introspection; Freud was beginning to research & treat nervous disorders, developing the psychodynamic approach

  1883: first psych lab was opened in the US

  1891: first psych lab was opened in the UK

  1892: american psychological association was formed

  1892: british psychological society was formed

  1900s: behaviourism

  1940s: cognitive

  1950s: humanism
• b.f. skinner: learning approach behaviourism

  behaviourist approach to explaining behaviour suggests that all behaviour is acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning. the basic laws governing learning are the same for humans and non-humans, therefore, non-humans can replace humans in behaviourist experimental research. watson & skinner disagreed with the subjective nature of wundt's introspective methods, and the inability to formulate laws based on observations
• behaviourist assumptions

  1. psychology should be viewed as a science - behaviour should be studied in a scientific and objective way
  2. only observable behaviour should be studied
  3. tabula rasa: when we are born, our mind is a blank slate
  4. there's little difference between learning that takes places in humans and in animals
  5. behaviour is the result of organisms responding to a stimulus from the environment
• classical conditioning: a type of learning that occurs through associations made between an unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus

  1. NS -> NR
  2. UCS -> UCR
  3. UCS + NS -> UCR
  4. NS becomes the CS after they have been paired several times
  5. CS -> CR

  the unconditioned stimulus naturally causes the unconditioned response
• pavlov's study on classical conditioning

  • pavlov was interested in the digestion of dogs
  • salivation is a natural response to the presentation of food as it's needed to break down & digest the food
  • pavlov realised the dogs were salivating in response to things they associated with food, such as bells and white lab coats.
• pavlov

  NS (bell) -> no response (no salvation)

  (UCS) food -> (UCR) salivation

  (UCS) food + (NS) bell -> (UCR) salivation

  (CS) bell -> (CR) salivation
• extinction: when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS, the CS becomes extinct/disappears

  spontaneous recovery: after extinction, if the UCS & the CS are presented together again, the link between them will be made quicker

  generalisation: when things that resemble the NS cause the CR e.g. a changed pitch of the bell producing the same CR

  discrimination: opposition of generalisation; being conditioned to show the CR in very specific conditions
• operant conditioning: a type of learning where behaviour is acquired and maintained based on its consequences.

  • reinforcement INCREASES the likelihood of the observed behaviour being repeated
  • punishment DECREACES the likelihood that the behaviour is repeated
  • positive reinforcement: we carry out a behaviour to receive a reward
  • negative reinforcement: we carry out a behaviour to avoid negative consequences
  • thorndike's law of effect: if a positive consequence results from an action, the behaviour is 'stamped in'
• schedules of reinforcement

  fixed interval: received a reward after a given time period

  variable interval: receive a reward intermittently - irregular intervals

  continuous reinforcement: the desired behaviour is reinforced every single time it occurs - results in a stronger response

  partial reinforcement: the response is reinforced only part of the time - results in a weaker response
• skinner's box studied the effect of reinforcement on rats

  • rats were given electric shocks & had to press a lever to stop the shocks
  • they'd accidentally knock the lever at first, but they soon learnt to go straight to the lever
  • negative reinforcement: the removal of the negative stimulus (shock) cause the behaviour to repeat (press the lever)
• ping pong pigeons studies the principle of positive reinforcement

  • they had to pass a ping pong ball to each other
  • if they failed, the other pigeon would get a reward
  • the pigeons anticipated the rewards as they put their heads to receive the reward if their opponent failed
• superstitious pigeons

  • studied a number of pigeons who were given food at random times
  • found that the pigeons started to show odd behaviours and when they were given food, they repeated the behaviour
  • positive reinforcement: the reward (food) caused them to repeat and continue the behaviour (odd things like walking around in circles etc.)
• strengths of behaviourism

  + scientific

  • objectively & systematically collect reliable data
  • studies observable behaviour
  • makes the theory falsifiable
  • controlled conditions which reduces & controls the effects of confounding and extraneous variables - increasing the reliability & internal validity
• strengths of behaviourism

  + real life application

  • understanding of classical & operant conditioning has led to the development of treatment & therapies
  • we know that positive reinforcement is more powerful than punishment -> gives us systematic desensitisation & flooding for phobia treatment
• weaknesses of behaviourism

  -- environmental determinism

  • sees all behaviour as the product of past reinforcement contingencies, leaving no room for free will & conscious choices
  • hard deterministic stance may be a more appropriate for explaining animal behaviour, whereas explaining human behaviour should account for emotions, motivations and reason
  • limited explanation for human behaviour as we do not share enough similarities to extrapolate and the results to human behaviour
• weaknesses of behaviourism

  -- cost-benefit analysis

  • use of animals can cause physical harm, breaching the BPS ethical guideline of protection from harm
  • watson & rayner's classical conditioning experiments on Little Albert failed to protection from harm & didn't include the right to withdraw

  -- nature-nurture debate

  • wholly takes the nurture side, ignoring biological explanations for behaviour
• bandura: social learning theory

  neo-behaviourist approach which states that we learn directly through the environment (classical & operant conditioning) and learn indirectly through observing & imitating our role models (vicarious reinforcement). observational learning states there's a cognitive element which determines whether we choose to show a behaviour. we do not imitate every behaviour we see; the likelihood of imitation is dependent on meditational processes
• SLT assumptions

  1. behaviour is learnt from the environment (no regard to genetic as an influence on behaviour)
  2. behaviour is learned from observing & imitating
  3. behaviourist approach + cognitive factors: stimulus -> meditational processes -> response
  4. learning occurs directly (classical & operant conditioning) and indirectly (vicarious reinforcement)
• learning

  1. observer identified with a desirable role model
  2. role model displays a specific behaviour, which is imitated by the observer
  3. likelihood that observed behaviour will be imitated is increased if the role model is vicariously reinforced or rewarded
  4. the consequences of the observed behaviour are more important than observing the behaviour done alone
• meditational process: cognitive processes which mediate/intervene between the stimulus and response

  1. attention: observe the role model
  2. retention: remember what we have seen
  3. motor reproduction: copying behaviour
  4. motivation: if we receive positive reinforcement for the behaviour, we continue with it; if we receive punishment, we don't carry on
• role model: a person with whom the observer identifies with:

  • attractive
  • high social status
  • similar age
  • same gender
  • they exert influence indirectly via TV, media etc
• identification: a person takes on board their role model's values so that they show behaviour they believe is consistent with their role model & their values
• vicarious reinforcement: the reaction our role model receives; indirect learning where if we see our role model do something, and get punished for it, we are less likely to imitate it
• self-efficacy: our perceived abilities; if we think we aren't capable of demonstrating a behaviour, we won't try it
• bandura's bobo dolls

  aim: do role models evoke aggressive behaviour in someone younger?

  participants: 36 boys & 36 girls, aged 3 - 6, Stanford University Nursery

  conditions:

  • aggressive role model shown to 24 kids
  • non-aggressive role model shown to 24 kids
  • no role model shown - control group - 24 kids
• bandura method:

  • participants observed the adult role model's behaviour
  • room: bobo doll, hammer -> adult hits the bobo doll with the hammer and shouts abuse at it
  • after seeing the behaviour, the ppts were taken into another room with the experimenter and were allowed to play with the toys
  • they were observed for 20 minutes and recorded on the extent they imitated the behaviour they had just seen
• bandura results:

  • found the children who had observed aggressive behaviour acted aggressively when observed
  • the boys acted more aggressively than girls
  • greater level of imitation if the role model was the same gender
  • female role model confused the kids as they didn't see aggression as 'lady-like'
• bandura conclusion: we are most likely to imitate behaviour if it seems consistent with how we expect the role model to behave, thus supporting SLT as children did observe and directly imitate the behaviours
• evaluation of SLT 1

  -- environmental determinism: sees behaviour as determined even though some behaviours may be innate, thus ignoring the role of free will

  -- limited explanation: the case where there's no apparent role model in the person's life to imitate a given behaviour - first person in the family to show psychopathic behaviour?

  -- SLT only explains outwards behaviours (fighting, smoking), but doesn't explaining learning abstract notions (fairness, justice)
• evaluation of SLT 2

  + takes thought processes into account - acknowledges the role they play in deciding if behaviour is to be imitated or not

  + provides comprehensive explanation: recognises the role of meditational processes as conscious & cognitive insight into behaviour - better explanation than behaviourism
• evaluation of SLT 3

  -- beta bias: the study ignores the impact of biological and hormonal differences between boys and girls - boys have higher levels of testosterone which has been linked to increased aggression

  low generalisability:

  -- lacks internal validity: doesn't entirely investigate the effect of aggressive role models because bobo dolls are designed to be hit

  -- lacks mundane realism: doesn't represent or measure aggression in day-to-day situations

  -- demand characteristics: please u effect - acting aggressively deliberately
• jean piaget: cognitive approach

  studies internal mental processes: attention, memory, perception, language and thought. it assumes that the scientific & objective study of internal mental processes is possible, but these processes cannot be directly observed, so cognitive psychologists formulate conclusions of their workings by making inferences, based on observable behaviour; and so most of the work they do is the indirect measurement of cognition. it investigates those areas that have been neglected