microlec 2

• Symptoms of lupus


  • Joint pains and swelling
  • Skin rashes, which may become noticeable after being out in the sun; butterfly rash in the face
  • Extreme tiredness, known as fatigue
• Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) test


  Detects inflammation that may be caused by infection and some autoimmune diseases
• 1. reactive protein (CRP) blood test


  Used to identify inflammation or infection in the body
• Autoantibodies in lupus


  • ANA (Antinuclear Antibody)
  • Extractable Nuclear Antigen Antibodies (ENA)
• Treatment of SLE


  • Management often depends on disease severity and disease manifestations
  • Plasmapheresis
• Sjögren's syndrome


  • Dry eyes – Keratoconjunctivitis sicca
  • Dry mouth – Xerostomia
  • Involvement of other excretory glands
• Liver with biliary cirrhosis
• Bacteria have different types of flagella that allow them to move through their environment.
• The cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan, which provides strength to the bacterial cell.
• The movement of bacteria is called motility, which can be observed under a microscope using a technique called wet mount preparation.
• Peptidoglycan consists of alternating sugars (N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylluramic acid) crosslinked by short polypeptide chains.
• Flagellar antigens are used as markers for bacterial identification.
• Flagellum - A long whip-like structure used for locomotion.
• Some bacteria also produce capsules or slime layers, which can protect against phagocytosis by host cells.
• Motile bacteria include Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter jejuni, Helicobacter pylori, Neisseria meningitidis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
• Flagellar antigen typing is used to identify specific strains of bacteria based on the type of flagella they possess.
• Antibiotic resistance testing involves growing bacteria in the presence of antibiotics to determine if they are resistant or susceptible.
• Gram staining is a method used to classify bacteria into two groups based on their ability to retain crystal violet dye.
• Cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan, teichoic acids, lipopolysaccharides, and proteins.
• Gram staining involves treating cells with crystal violet dye followed by iodine solution, then washing off excess stain and decolorizing with alcohol or acetic acid.
• Capsules are extracellular structures surrounding some bacteria and may contain carbohydrates, proteins, or both.
• Gram staining is based on differences in the thickness of the cell wall between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
• Crystal violet binds to the thick layer of peptidoglycan in Gram-positive cells, while safranin binds to the thin layer of peptidoglycan in Gram-negative cells.
• Pili or fimbriae - Short hair-like structures involved in attachment and transfer of genetic material during conjugation.
• Bacteria have different shapes such as cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), spirilla (spiral-shaped), vibrio (comma-shaped), and spirochetes (spirally coiled).
• Acid alcohol decolorizes both Gram-positive and Gram-negative cells but does not remove crystal violet from Gram-positive cells due to its thicker cell wall.
• Capsule - A sticky layer surrounding the cell surface that protects against phagocytosis.
• The H antigen refers to the O antigen of the lipopolysaccharide component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.
• Capsule - A sticky layer that surrounds some bacteria and helps them adhere to surfaces.
• Lipopolysaccharides (endotoxins) - Outer membrane components found only in gram negative bacteria.
• LPS is an important virulence factor that allows pathogenic bacteria to evade immune responses.
• Pili/Fimbriae - Hair-like structures on the surface of bacteria that allow attachment to other cells or surfaces.
• K antigen refers to the K antigen of the capsule of certain bacteria.
• Nonmotile bacteria include Bacillus anthracis, Clostridioides difficile, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Haemophilus influenzae type b, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Yersinia enterocolitica.
• Bacteria may be classified into different groups based on their ability to grow under certain conditions.
• Capsule - A sticky layer that surrounds the cell wall and helps prevent phagocytosis.
• Bacteria have different shapes such as cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), spirilla (spiral-shaped), vibrios (comma-shaped), and spirochetes (spirally coiled).
• Agar plates with different nutrients and growth factors can be used to selectively isolate specific types of bacteria.
• The Gram stain consists of three steps: heat fixation, decolorization with alcohol, and counterstain with safranin.
• The Gram stain test is used to classify bacteria based on differences in cell wall composition.