topic 5

• Qualitative research


  Used to explore human experiences and situations by using in-depth approaches that employ non-statistical methods of analysis
• Qualitative research (Interpretive)


  • Focused on human experience
  • Attempts to understand experience from the perspective of the research participant
  • Conducted in natural settings
  • Allows close contact between the researcher and research participants
  • Recognises the existence of multiple realities
• Outcome (report) of qualitative research


  Rich and descriptive
• Why qualitative research


  • To understand human experiences
  • To help to make sense of human reality and the social world
  • To develop rich description and theory
  • To avoid pre-judgements
• Qualitative research in nursing


  • Developing holistic understandings of people and responses to their experiences
  • Making changes in nursing practice, policy, education or management
  • Improving healthcare delivery
  • Providing insight into a little known human phenomena/human experience within the context of health and illness situations
  • Build theory
• Phenomenology


  • A methodology uncovering thoughts, perspectives, understandings, feelings and behaviours from the perspectives of the person
  • Goal: to develop an understanding of human lived experiences
  • In the context of healthcare: to explore and understand the meanings of health, illness, disability and disease
• Phenomenology questions


  • What is it like to experience...?
  • What are your experiences of being...?
• Grounded Theory


  • Developed by Glaser and Strauss in the 1960s
  • Aim: to examine processes and inter-relationships among concepts to develop theory
  • Focus: social processes & meaning (explanation of human action and interaction)
  • Used when little study done in the area to find new understandings or perspectives on unknown or unclear phenomena
• Ethnography


  • A study of cultures or subcultures, originated in the field of anthropology
  • Aim: to understand the culture of a group of people
  • Focus: on group interactions and activities (cultural phenomenon) rather than on individual behaviors
  • Insider as well as outsider perspective (emic/etic interpretations)
  • Researcher often participant observer-embedding within culture (fieldwork)
  • Time taken to establish trust
• Case study


  • An in-depth examination of a particular phenomenon, issue or event within a real-life context
  • Enables a detailed examination of a single case or unit
  • Used to look at individuals, a small group of participants, or a group as a whole
  • In health research, often used to look at what happens when a person has a certain disease
• Qualitative descriptive research


  • A more specific approach within the naturalistic paradigm
  • Goal: to describe a phenomenon and its characteristics and provide a comprehensive summary of events
  • Used when straight description is desired
  • Remain close to the data: move away from methodology or specific theoretical positioning
  • Description always depends on the study participants' perspective or perception
  • Rich narrative data
• Qualitative research methods with examples

  • Descriptive exploratory
  • Phenomenology
  • Grounded Theory
  • Ethnology
  • Historical
  • Case Study
  • Action Research
• Phases and steps of the research process

  1. Phase 1: conceive the study

  2. Phase 2: design the study

  3. Phase 3: Conduct the study

  4. Phase 4: Data analysis

  5. Phase 5: Use the study
• Qualitative sampling techniques


  • Purposive
  • Convenience
  • Snowball
  • Intensity sampling
• Types of Qualitative data

  • Historical documents
  • Life history and personal narratives
  • Diaries, photographs, videos
  • Letters and personal documents
  • Official documents and records
  • Official databases (quantitative and qualitative)
  • Teacher/Student stories
• Data collection methods


  • Participant observation
  • In-depth interviews
  • Focus groups
• Use multiple methods for data collection in the same study
• Data analysis process


  1. Data immersion

  2. Content analysis

  3. Thematic analysis

  4. Narrative analysis

  5. Discourse analysis
• In quantitative research, data analysis is completed before writing results. In qualitative research, data analysis may be continuous with data collection & writing of results.
• Rigor/Trustworthiness


  • Credibility
  • Auditability
  • Transferability
  • Confirmability
• Differences between quantitative and qualitative research

  • Objective vs Subjective
  • Numerical vs Non-numerical information
  • Partial vs Complete picture of phenomena
  • Researcher at 'arm's length' vs Researcher immersed
  • Validity/reliability vs Trustworthiness/rigor
  • Deductive vs Inductive
  • Time usually important vs Time not usually important
  • Control vs No/little control
  • Probability sampling vs Non-probability sampling
  • Data collection and analysis completed before writing results vs Data collection and analysis may be continuous with data collection & writing of results