Crimea and Emancipation

• The Crimean War, sparked by Russia’s aggression against the Ottoman Turks in 1853, saw Britain and France deploying 60,000 troops to the Crimea, despite Russia’s numerical advantage of 1 million men.
• The Russians suffered defeats at Balaclava and Inkerman in 1854, with Sebastopol falling in 1855. The Treaty of Paris in 1856 marked the war’s end, underscoring Russia’s poor transport infrastructure, inferior military leadership, and technological backwardness compared to its Western counterparts.
• Alexander II ascended the throne during the Crimean War, confronted with peasant revolts and pressure for reform from the intelligentsia. Recognizing the need for change to maintain Russia’s status, he leaned towards reform, supported by liberal-minded nobles like the Milyutin brothers and Grand Duke Konstantin.
• However, he grappled with the challenge of implementing reforms without undermining autocracy and his own authority, mindful of the Western pattern where reform often coincided with revolution or the rise of democracy.
• In 1861, Alexander II emancipated Russia’s 51 million serfs, granting them freedom after a period of two years for privately owned serfs and five years for state serfs.
• Serfs received their house and a small plot of land, while landowners retained meadows, pastures, and woodlands. They gained control over marriage, business, and travel, albeit with restrictions
• Former owners were compensated, and serfs paid redemption payments for 49 years with 6% interest. They remained in the peasant commune (mir), which allocated land, controlled farming, and collected taxes.
• Volosts supervised multiple mirs and ran courts from 1863.
• The emancipation of the serfs was prompted by several factors. The humiliation of the Crimean War underscored the need for change, while Minister for War Dmitry Milyutin argued that only a free population could improve Russia’s army.
• Alexander II’s liberal beliefs also influenced the decision. Economically, freeing the peasants made sense as it would increase their motivation to work and boost grain harvests, thus benefiting the state financially
• Additionally, freedom of movement was essential for industrialization, as serfs were needed in towns and factories for development to occur.
• he emancipation of the serfs in Russia brought about several successes. Firstly, it marked a dramatic shift in the country’s social and economic landscape, achieved peacefully with minimal open conflict.
• The delicate balance between peasant demands for land and compensation for landlords transformed the legal status of 40 million Russians. Peasant disturbances decreased significantly throughout the rest of the 19th century.
• Moreover, the emancipation fostered the emergence of more enterprising peasants, known as kulaks, who expanded their land holdings and generated surplus grain for profit.
• It also spurred some growth in business and industry, as nobles, now free from debt, invested in new enterprises. Additionally, the industrial workforce in towns and cities grew as peasants sought paid work away from the land.
• The emancipation of the serfs in Russia had several limitations. Firstly, landlords often manipulated the process to benefit themselves, leading to disturbances after the edict.
• Peasants were typically allocated small plots of land, averaging only nine acres, while landlords inflated land values to maximize compensation.
• As a result, most peasants remained impoverished, unable to provide sufficient consumer demand to drive industrial growth necessary for Russia’s modernization
• Peasants remained tied to the mir, limiting their freedom in various aspects of life, including land allocation and travel.
• Moreover, government payments to landowners often went towards paying off debts, leaving little capital for investment in modernizing industry and agriculture. This economic strain led some nobles to sell their land and move to towns, fostering resentment towards the government.
• • Ottoman Empire Expansion:

  • In the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire extended from the Middle East across the Black Sea Straits into the Balkans.
• Struggle for Control:

  • Since the 1820s, the Sultan had difficulty controlling Christians in European dominions, leading Tsar Nicholas I to pose as the Protector of Slavs and Christians to increase Russian influence.
• Outbreak of War:

  • In June 1853, Nicholas sent a Russian army to Moldavia and Wallachia, prompting the Turks to declare war in October.
• British and French Intervention:

  • British and French forces, aiming to protect their trading interests, joined the war on Turkey’s side, deploying over 60,000 troops to the Russian Crimea and attacking the naval base of Sebastopol.
• War Challenges:

  • The war was marked by incompetence, cholera outbreaks, and Russian deficiencies in technology, transport, and leadership.
• Defeats and Humiliation:

  • Russian defeats at Balaclava and Inkerman in 1854, followed by the fall of Sebastopol in September 1855, left the tsarist government shocked and humiliated.
• Consequences:

  • The war revealed Russia’s military and administrative inadequacies, disrupted trade, intensified peasant uprisings, and renewed calls from the intelligentsia for modernization.
• Treaty of Paris (1856):

  • The Treaty of Paris added to Russia’s humiliation by preventing Russian warships from using the Black Sea in times of peace.
• • Wake-Up Call:

  • The failure in the Crimean War served as a wake-up call for Russia, highlighting the need for change.
• End of Stagnation:

  • With the death of Nicholas I, decades of stagnation ended.
• New Leadership:

  • In 1855, Alexander II ascended to the throne, accompanied by a new generation of liberal-minded nobles and officials who would influence his reign significantly.
• The challenge was to achieve economic development on par with other European powers without weakening the autocratic structure that held the Empire together.
• Enlightened despotism: a system of government in which an all-powerful ruler granted domestic reforms in order to benefit his people
• • Emancipation of Serfs:

  • Tsar Alexander II’s decision to emancipate Russia’s 51 million serfs in 1861 is often portrayed as a bold move driven by his liberal and humanitarian ideals.

  • This action challenged convention and initiated a series of reforms in various areas, earning Alexander the nickname “Tsar Liberator.”
• Alternative Interpretation:

  • Historian Terence Emmons offers a different interpretation, viewing the serfs’ emancipation as a state-directed manipulation aimed at strengthening social and political stability rather than a result of liberal thinking from an enlightened Tsar.

  • Emmons argues that the reforms were government-driven and ultimately backfired, creating division between the Tsarist government and the landed gentry, upon whom the government relied.
• Impact of Reforms:

  • Instead of fostering faith in the Tsar’s ability to lead effective change, Alexander’s reforms weakened public confidence and fueled a desire for popular participation in government.