Gender + sexuality

• Gender


  What you identify as. Can change
• Sex


  What your body is (male/female) Biological
• Gender identities are socially constructed. People learn them through the socialisation process.
• Gender differences are socially constructed by agents of socialisation, which steer people towards gender stereotypes and encourage them to identify themselves within these stereotypes.
• Hegemonic masculinity

  • Hetrosexuality
  • Physical strength
  • Rational
  • Dominant
  • Aggressive
• Hegemonic femininity


  • Dependent
  • Housewife
  • Childcare
  • Sexually passive
  • Weak
• Heterosexuality has traditionally been seen as the dominant and ideal form of sexuality in the UK - Heteronormativity
• Homosexuality was often seen as a form of deviant or abnormal sexuality. Those practicing homosexuality have a stigmatised or spoiled identity.
• By the 1970s, a distinct gay subculture emerged in the UK.
• Much of the gay subculture that emerged focused on leisure and consumption.
• Gay culture and identity became politicized, as gay people sought to overcome stigma.
• Gay pride marches have been attempts to increase the visibility and social acceptability of gay people.
• However, prejudice and discrimination has not disappeared completely against homosexual people
• In modern Britain, heterosexuality is a central part of hegemonic masculine and feminine identities.
• Women have traditionally been regarded as sex objects, subjected to what Mulvey called the 'male gaze', particularly in the mass media.
• Feminists such as Hunt have suggested that media representations may have other negative effects, such as being responsible for eating disorders.
• Family and the formation of gender identities

  From an early age, people are trained to conform to social expectations in regard to gender behaviour.

  Much of this training goes on in the family during primary socialisation
• Oakley identified ways in which children are socialised into gendered behaviour:

  • Manipulation- parents encourage or discourage certain behaviour
  • Cananlistation- Parents direct children’s interests
  • Domestic activities- Cultural expectations about future responsibilities
  • Verbal appellations- Boys and Girls exposed to different language
  • Colour codes
  • Appearance codes
  • Toy codes
• Schools and the formation of gender identities 


  The hidden curriculum has a significant impact in reinforcing gender identity.

  Subject choices- Boys may be persuaded to do science subjects while Girls persuaded to do humanities

  Teacher attitudes- Girls may get away from being in trouble more. They are averagely better behaved
• The mass media and the formation of gender identities 


  The mass media reinforces traditional gender identities through stereotyping, gendered images…

  Billington et al argues that mass media has traditionally portrayed masculinity as dominant and femininity as subordinate

  Women rarely shown in high status occupational roles

  Wolf points out that the media often promotes the ‘beauty myth’- a particular physical image is normal and ideal
• impact of mass media on gender identities 


  • Orbach linked images to EDs
  • Berger says a woman’s status is based on appearance rather than what she does
• peer groups and the formation of gender identities

  Peer groups influence gender identities through peer pressure in dress, cosmetics and body shape

  Women’s identities may be subjected to deviant labels such as ‘slag’ if they adopt a similar sexual nature to men.

  Lees found that females in her study conformed to gender expectations in order to protect their reputation
• Religion and the formation of gender identities 


  El Sadawi does not blame religion itself but rather attacks the male domination of it. Men were responsible for writing religious scriptures

  Fundamentalists in Iran, Israel and Afghanistan insist on ruthlessly reinforcing traditional female roles
• Work and the formation of gender identities

  Charles and Davies argue that many workplaces have a masculine culture in which women feel threatened and excluded
• Feminism 


  Socialisation into our gender is patriarchal. Benefits men
• Functionalism 


  Parsons suggested the smooth running of society means we need men and women to adopt different roles
• New right 


  Traditional family values are very important. Women should stick to traditional roles for the family benefits
• Marxism 


  The rich use women as a cheap source of labour. Free labour at home
• Interactionism 


  Gender identity is negotiated in every day lives as people try establish how they should behave according to their gender identity
• Post modernism 


  In our wealthy contemporary society we are all capable of choosing the life we want to lead
• Changing gender identity

  More males and females are adopting gender identities which combine elements of both genders.
• Changes in education 


  Women weren’t allowed to go to school. Now girls can go to school and choose subjects to do
• Changes in the economy 


  Now women can work. Globalisation has led to a decline in the manufacturing industry and increase in the service sector. New jobs are gender neutral. Feminisation of the economy
• Changes in the family 


  It is now more common to have working mums, single parents, adoption, children older….
• Impact of changing gender identities 


  Wilkinson argues that the feminisation of the economy has led to a revolution in women’s ambitions, attitudes and expectations about their futures.

  As women’s independent income increase their financial need for marriage reduces.

  Women are now viewed as significant consumers

  Jackson argues that there has been the emergence of ‘Ladettes’

  Females who adopt a tougher and more sexually aggressive femininity. Taking on a lads masculine
• Walter argues that while opportunities for women have increased, new forms of sexism are creating problems.

  She suggest that a new hyper sexual culture places a very strong emphasis upon women’s appearances
• • women still carry the major burden of child-care and house work (dual burden)
  • There is still a pay gap between men and women
  • Social class and ethnicity may limit some peoples choices
• Changing masculinity 


  Mac an Ghaill claim that this means that hegemonic masculinity is experiencing a ‘crisis of masculinity’
• New man


  More in touch with feminine side. share housework and childcare
• Metrosexual 


  Heterosexual men who sue moisturiser and designer cosmetic products. Refined taste in clothing