Alex III

• • Alexander III - The Man:

  • He was the third child (second son) of Alexander II.

  • Disagreed with his father’s reforms and was upset by his father’s affair with Catherine Dolgorukov. He witnessed his father’s assassination.
• Alex III:

  A traditional ‘slavophile,’ he supported autocracy, Russian Orthodox Christianity, and believed in the superiority of Russians over other nationalities in the Empire.
• Married Princess Dagmar of Denmark, later known as Maria Feodorovna, in 1866 (she was his deceased brother’s fiancée). Initially opposed to the marriage due to his affection for one of his mother’s ladies-in-waiting, it turned out to be a happy union, resulting in 6 children.
• He died of kidney disease in 1894 at the age of 49.
• Statute Concerning Measures for the Protection of State Security and the Social Order:

  • Established the Okhrana, a new secret police force with broad enforcement powers.
• Introduced special courts for prosecuting suspected terrorists.

  • Imposed increased censorship on media.

  • Removed judges, magistrates, and elected officials considered too liberal.
• Additionally, Alexander III forced the resignation of some of his father’s more reform-minded ministers, including Loris-Melikov (Minister of the Interior) and Dmitrii Milyutin (Minister of War).
• Education:

  • A statute in 1886 reinstated government control over university appointments and banned student societies.
• Education:

  Fees for primary, secondary, and university education were raised to deter students from humble backgrounds. A decree from 1887 expressed the sentiment that children of lower social classes should not pursue certain types of education
• Education:

  Orthodox Church-run parish primary schools were promoted, while zemstva schools were discouraged from expanding.
• Zemstva:

  Laws enacted in 1890 and 1892 redefined the electorate for local elections, reducing the number of eligible voters in places like St. Petersburg.
• Zemstva were steered towards addressing non-political issues like health and local transport but were cautioned against delving into broader matters.

  • Meetings of zemstva chairmen were heavily restricted.
• In 1889, Alexander III introduced a new position of authority known as the land captains. These government officials, who had to be members of the nobility, replaced the previous office of Justice of the Peace.
• Land Captains:

  Overruling the mir (the peasant commune) and the local zemstvo if they were deemed to have exceeded their authority.

  • Interfering in zemstvo elections and overturning their decisio
• Land Captains:

  Intervening in judicial cases and imposing punishments if dissatisfied with the original trial outcome.
• The Land Captain reported directly to the Minister of the Interior, indicating a notable increase in centralized control over local areas. Alexander III sought to reinstate the nobility to a position of authority reminiscent of their pre-emancipation status.
• Under Alexander III, Russification efforts intensified across various domains
• Poland: Following the Polish revolt of 1863-64, Warsaw University was closed in 1869, and Russian replaced Polish as the language of instruction. Hundreds of Russian officials were drafted in to assert control.
• The Russian Orthodox Church launched a mass conversion campaign among Muslim Tartars, resulting in an estimated 100,000 conversions by 1900. However, this persecution fueled separatist ambitions among the Tartars.
• The Russian Orthodox Church engaged in political assassinations in its campaign against the Georgian Church, stimulating Georgian nationalism.
• Property belonging to the Armenian Church was seized.
• Under the leadership of Vyacheslav von Plehve and later Pyotr Durnovo, the Department of Police, including the notorious Okhrana, underwent significant expansion and intensified surveillance measures
• Policing changes:

  The number of police officers increased.

  • New branches of the criminal investigation department were established.

  • Recruitment drives aimed to bolster the ranks of spies, counter-spies, and agents provocateurs, the latter posing as revolutionaries to entrap others.
• Okhrana:

  Intercepting and reading mail to gather intelligence.

  • Monitoring activities in various sectors including factories, universities, the military, and government institutions.

  • Detaining suspects and employing methods such as torture and summary executions.
• Okhrana:

  Focusing on Communists, socialists, trade unionists, and other perceived threats to the regime.

  • Surveillance extended to members of the civil service and government, reflecting the pervasive nature of their operations.
• Closed court session: a trial held in secret to which no observers were permitted and where no reporting was allowed
• Judiciary changes

  In 1885, a decree granted the Minister of Justice increased control, particularly in the dismissal of judges.

  • By 1887, the Ministry was authorized to conduct closed court sessions, enhancing its influence over legal proceedings.
• Judiciary changes:

  In 1889, volost courts in rural areas came under the direct jurisdiction of Land Captains, while judges in towns assumed similar authority over local judicial proceedings. These changes centralized control over the legal system, diminishing the autonomy of local courts.
• Changes in censorship:

  1. Newspapers could be shut down, and editors and publishers faced lifetime bans.

  2. Censors intensified their scrutiny, requiring official approval for all literary publications.
• Censorship changes:

  3. Libraries and reading rooms were limited in the selection of books they could offer.

  4. Censorship extended beyond literature to encompass theatre, art, and cultural expressions, enforcing Russification policies to promote Russian culture and values.
• In May 1881, a law was enacted to reduce redemption fees and clear arrears for ex-serfs in the central provinces, easing their financial burden.
• The poll tax was abolished in May 1885, and inheritance tax was introduced, redistributing the tax burden away from the lowest classes.
• Reforms included granting the right of appeal to higher courts after trial before the Land Captain, establishing the Peasants’ Land Bank in 1883, and implementing some progressive factory legislation.
• While these reforms may have been driven by a desire to quell discontent, similar motivations could be attributed to Alexander II’s reforms.
• Russification: forcing everyone

  within the Russian Empire to think of themselves as Russian, by enforcing the Russian language and culture
• Anti-Semitic: being prejudiced against and persecuting Jews, who were known as 'Semitic' as they descended from people who spoke the 'Semitic' language
• Chauvinism: exaggerated belief in national superiority and glory
• Pogrom: an old Russian word which means 'round up' or lynching; it originally denoted an assault by one ethnic group on another but after 1881 it gained the special connotation of an attack on Jews
• National ideology: a belief in the strength of one's own country, language and traditions; this became a powerful force in Europe after the defeat of Napoleon

  (1815) who had tried to extend French influence across the continent
• The vast and diverse Russian Empire presented ongoing challenges for the tsarist autocracy, especially as nationalist sentiments emerged among various ethnic groups during the nineteenth century.