Research methods

• The experimental method

  • scientific method involving the manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect
• Variable - any characteristic/ object/ event that varies in some way
• • Independent variable- the variable which is changed
  • Dependent variable - the factor which is measured
• Operationalisation - clearly defining variables so they can be manipulated
• Extraneous - variables that could affect the results of the dependent variable
• Confounding variables

  uncontrolled extraneous variables that negatively affect results
• Extraneous variables

  1. participant variables - concern factors eg. Participants ages/ intelligence
  2. Situational variables - concern the experimental setting and surrounding environment eg temp
  3. experimenter variables - changes in the personality, appearance and conduct of researcher
• Demand characteristics

  features of a piece of research which allow the participants to work out its aim and then change their behaviour to favour the aim of the research
• Investigator effects

  the ways in which researchers unconsciously influence the results of research
• Investigator effects

  1. physical characteristics
  2. less obvious personal characteristics eg. Accent
  3. investigators may be unconsciously biased in their interpretation of days and find what they expect to find
• Laboratory experiments

  • conducted in a controlled environment
• Laboratory experiments Advantages

  + high degree of control - experiments control all variables the IV and DV are precisely operationalised and measured (greater accuracy)

  + replication - other researchers cant repeat the experiments to check the results
• Weaknesses of laboratory experiments

  • - experimenter bias experiments expectations can affect the results and participants may be influenced by these expectations
  • - demand characteristics participants aware they’re being tested and so many unconsciously alter their behaviour
• Field experiments

  • experiments conducted in a naturalistic environment where the researchers manipulate the independent variable
• Natural experiments

  • the independent variable varies naturally
  • experimenter records the effects of the Dependent variable
• Quasi experiments

  • Independent variable occurs naturally
• Field + natural experiments

  + high ecological validity - results can relate to everyday behaviours and can be generalised to other settings

  + no demand characteristics - participants are unaware of the experiment
• Field and natural experiments

  • - less control - more difficult to control extraneous variables
  • - sample bias - since participants are randomly allocated to groups (samples may not be comparable to each other)
• Observational techniques

  • involves watching and recording behaviour
• 2 main types of observational

  1. participant observation - involved observers becoming actively involved in the situation to gain a more hands on perspective eg. Zimbardos prison study
  2. non participant observation- involves researchers not being actively involved in the behaviour being studied
• Overt

  • where participants are aware they are being observed
• Covert

  • where participants are unaware of being observed
• Advantages of observational techniques

  + high external validity - Observation usually occur in natural settings - therefore generalisable

  + few demand characteristics- with covert observations, participants cant show demand characteristics if they dont know they are being observed
• Weaknesses of observational

  • observer bias - others may see what they want to see
  • replication - the lack of control over variables means conditions can never be repeated exactly to check the results
• Observational design

  • naturalistic observation - surveillance and recording of naturally occurring events
• Behavioural categories

  • observers agree on a grid or coding sheet on which to record the behaviour being studied
• Sampling procedures

  • event sampling - counting the number of times a behaviour occurs in a target individual
  • time sampling - counting behaviour in a set time frame eg. Recording a behaviour every 30 seconds
• Inter observer reliability

  • occurs when independent observers code behaviour in the same way
• Self report techniques

  • research methods in which participants give information about themselves without researcher interference
• Questionnaires

  • closed (fixed) questions - involve yes/no answer
  • open questions - allow participants to answer in their own words
• Questionnaire advantages

  • lack of investigator effects - questionnaires can be completed without researchers present
  • replication - use standardised questions so are easily replicated
• Questionnaire weaknesses

  • misunderstanding - participants may misinterpret questions
  • biased samples - questionnaires are suitable for people who are willing and able to spend more time completing them
• Questionnaire construction

  1. aims
  2. length
  3. previous questionnaires
  4. question formation
  5. pilot study
  6. measurement scales
• Interviewers

  • involve researchers asking face to face questions
• Interview types

  1. structured - involves identical closed questions being read to participants
  2. unstructured - involves an informal discussion of a particular topic
  3. semi structured - involves combining structure and unstructured techniques
• Interview advantages

  • complex issues - sensitive issues can be dealt with face to face
  • replication - the more standardised or structured an interview the easier it is to replicate
• Interview weaknesses

  • ethical issues - not knowing purpose or accidentally revealing too much
  • participant answers - some participants may struggle if they have difficulty putting their feelings into words
• Design of interviews - variables

  • eg. Gender
  • age
  • ethnicity
  • personal characteristics
• Correlation studies

  • involves measuring the strength and direction of relationships between co variables
• Positive correlation

  • where one co variable increases as another increases