Ethnicity and achievement

• Ethnic Groups


  Ethnic groups are 'people who share common history, customs and identity, as well as, in most cases, language and religion, and who see themselves as a distinct unit'.
• What are the highest and lowest achieving ethnic groups?

  Highest: Chinese and Indian

  Lowest: Pakistani and Black Caribbean

  
  

  The percentage difference between the highest achieving ethnic group and achieving ethnic group gaining 5 or more A*-C GCSE grades is 26%.
• In what subject is the biggest gap in attainment?

  Maths

  
  

  55% of Chinese students and 31% of Indian students achieved an A in maths.

  
  

  13% of Pakistani students and 8% of Black Caribbean students achieved an A.

  
  

  According to Dr Wilson of Bristol University the differences in attainment among ethnic groups are due to the contrast in attitudes in education.
• What other reasons are there to explain why some ethnic groups achieve better results than others in education?

  Cultural differences e.g. stricter rules of success

  
  

  Labelling - Labelled differently based on ethnicity

  
  

  Language barriers

  
  

  Pupil subcultures may form based on ethnicity

  
  

  Different attitudes towards the education system
• The Educational Inequality Report (2000)


  The educational inequality report stated that there are significant differences in the attainment of ethnic groups with Chinese and Indian pupils having higher levels of achievement and Pakistani and Black Caribbean pupils having lower levels of achievement.
• The Wanless Report (2007)


  Found that underachievement of Black Caribbean pupils in particular is shown by the following evidence:

  
  

  - They consistently have lower levels of attainment than other ethnic groups across all national curriculum key stages.

  
  

  - They are disproportionately put in bottom sets and are much less likely to be identified as gifted and talented.

  
  

  - They are one and a half times more likely to be categorised as having behavioural difficulties than white British students.

  
  

  - They are more likely to be permanently excluded and punished more harshly.

  
  

  - They are less likely to stay in education after compulsory education.
• External Factors


  Factors outside the education system that have an impact such as the influence of home and family background and wider society.
• Internal Factors


  Factors within the education system that have an impact, such as interactions between pupils and teachers, and inequalities between schools.
• External Factors: Material Deprivation


  Some sociologists blame educational failure of some ethnic groups on material deprivation.

  
  

  Material deprivation refers to poverty and a lack of material necessities.

  
  

  Minority ethnic groups are more likely to face material deprivation problems.
• Material Deprivation: Palmer (2012)


  Palmer (2012) noted that:

  - Almost half of all ethnic minority children live in low-income households as against a quarter of white children.

  
  

  - Pupils from these groups are two to three times more likely to be eligible for free school meals.

  
  

  - Ethnic minorities are almost twice as likely to be unemployed compared with the majority white ethnic group.
• How does material deprivation affect the education of children?

  Unable to purchase necessary textbooks, pens, paper etc

  
  

  Poor quality housing: Overcrowding is disruptive, mold causes illness and time off from school.

  
  

  Bad catchment areas tend to have higher crime rates and bad role models, which can lead to anti-school subcultures.

  
  

  Poor diet can lead to illness and time off from school.
• Criticisms of Material Deprivation as an explanation for ethnic differences in attainment

  Half of ethic minority children don't live in low income households.

  
  

  Gillborn and Mirza (2000): Differences exist between different ethnic groups from the same social classes e.g. white middle-class outperform black Caribbean middle-class.

  
  

  2011: 5 A*-C GCSE's, 86% of working class Chinese girls and 65% of middle-class white girls.
• External Factors: Cultural Deprivation


  Some sociologists blame educational failure of some ethnic groups on cultural deprivation.

  
  

  Cultural deprivation refers to a lack of norms, values, skills and attitudes needed for educational success.

  
  

  There are two main aspects for the explanation of ethnic differences in achievement: language and family life.
• Cultural Deprivation: Language


  2013: Around 18% of pupils in primary and 13% in secondary schools did not have English as their first language.

  
  

  Pupils for whom English is an additional language often have lower levels of attainment on starting school.

  
  

  Language differences may cause difficulties in doing schoolwork and communicating with the teacher.

  
  

  Teachers may mistake language difficulties for lack of ability and therefore have lower expectations of some of their pupils.

  
  

  Negative labelling may provide obstacles for learning and motivation in school and the self-fulfilling prophecy takes effect.
• Bereiter and Englemann (1966): Language


  Claimed that language used in low-income black American homes is deficient and inadequate for educational success.

  
  

  Described lower class families as communicating by gestures, single words or disjointed phrases.

  
  

  As a result, their children fail to develop the necessary language skills and they are incapable of expressing abstract ideas.
• Other reasons as to why pupils for whom English is an additional language often have lower levels of attainment.


  Teachers may mistake language difficulties for a lack of ability in general.

  
  

  The use of non-standard English or heavily accented English may be penalised unconsciously in the classroom.

  
  

  Negative labelling may provide obstacles for learning and motivation in school.

  
  

  Language has to be understood in exams
• Cultural Deprivation: Family Life

  Black Caribbean communities have a high level of lone parenthood, and this may pose financial and practical problems for such parents in supporting their children's education.

  
  

  For black Caribbean girls, who display higher levels of achievement than black Caribbean boys, the fact that women are often the primary breadwinners in many black Caribbean families may provide positive role models for girls and encourage higher levels of achievement.

  
  

  Asian family life has been characterised as consisting of close-knit classic extended families, which have high aspirations for their children and very supportive attitudes to education.
• Cultural Deprivation: Family Life - Murray (1984)


  Murray, a New Right thinker, argues that lone parenthood and a lack of positive male role models is not beneficial for boys in Black Caribbean lone parent families.
• Cultural Deprivation: Family Life - Sewell (2009)


  Argues that the problem for boys in black Caribbean matrifocal families is a lack of fatherly nurturing or 'tough love' which results in black boys finding it hard to overcome the emotional and behavioural difficulties of adolescence.

  
  

  Without a father figure role model, these boys may turn to street gangs of fatherless boys and create anti-school subcultures as many black boys are subject to powerful anti-educational peer group pressure.
• Cultural Deprivation: Family Life - Lupton (2004)


  Argues that adult authority in Asian families is similar to the model that operates in schools.

  
  

  She found that respectful behaviour towards adults was expected from children.

  
  

  This had a knock-on effect in school, since parents were more likely to be supportive of school behavioural policies.
• Criticisms of cultural deprivation as an explanation for ethnic differences in attainment

  Department for skills and education found language differences are quickly overcome and the impact declines over time. (2005)

  
  

  Gillborn and Mirza (2000) found that English as a second language doesn't appear to hold back Indian pupils.

  
  

  Vincent (2011) found that black middle-class parents are actively involved with the education process of their children.

  
  

  Modood (2006) found that black Caribbean and Asian parents are more successful than their white British counterparts in getting their children to enter Higher Education.

  
  

  Keddie (1973) Cultural difference not deprivation.
• External Factors: Racism in wider society

  Mason (2000): Notes that 'discrimination is a continuing and persistent feature of the experience of Britain's citizens of minority ethnic origin'.

  
  

  Some sociologists argue that educational failure is also the product of racism in wider society.
• Reasons why racism in wider society may impact educational achievement

  Primary Socialisation - parents pass on their racist views/stereotypes to their children, who then bully on the basis of these views.

  
  

  Stereotyping in the media - can influence students/teachers on how they treat their peers/students.

  
  

  Self-fulfilling prophecy may happen

  
  

  Bullying of ethnic minority students may lead to truanting from school.

  
  

  Hall (1976): Creates a 'culture of resistance' towards schooling and the low-paid work they are being prepared for.
• Internal Factors: Gillborn and Mirza (2000)


  Found that black children were the highest achievers on entry to primary school, yet had the worst results of any ethnic group by the time came to GCSE's.
• Internal Factors:Individual racism and labelling.

  How teachers and students may label students differently based on their ethnic background.


  Perceptions of ability based on ethnicity

  
  

  Based on ethnicity of the teacher

  
  

  Students label other students based on primary socialisation.

  
  

  Punishments and sanctions can be based on ethnicity.

  
  

  Streaming and setting - statistically black Caribbean boys are more likely to be placed into lower sets.
• Individual Racism and Labelling: Cline (2002)


  Found that racism was common among pupils in schools.

  
  

  A significant proportion of minority ethnic pupils reported race related name-calling, other unkindness or rudeness because of their ethnicity, or verbal abuse at school or while travelling to and from school, and often such racial harassment continued over an extended period of time.

  
  

  This could impact educational achievement because racial bullying may lead to students truanting from school and therefore missing vital information, which affects grades. It can also cause arguments between students leading to disciplinary action, such as suspension which results in time off from school.
• Individual racism and labelling: Gillborn and Youdell (2000)


  Studied one inner-city school and suggested that teachers can also still hold negative stereotypes with consequent negative labelling which plays an important role in disadvantaging black students.

  
  

  Teachers were quicker to discipline black pupils than others for the same behaviours as they expected them to present more discipline problems and misinterpreted their behaviour as threatening or a challenge to authority.

  
  

  This could explain the higher level of exclusions from school of black boys. This affects educational achievement as certain punishment result in time off from school which affects grades.
• Individual racism and labelling: Wright (1992)


  Found some teachers hold ethnic-based stereotypes, with more positive expectations of Asians, generally seeing them as relatively quiet, well behaved and highly motivated.

  
  

  Also found that some Asian pupils had negative experiences. Teachers assumed they would have a poor grasp of English and left them out of class discussion and the pupils also left marginalised when their names were continually mispronounced by the teachers.

  
  

  This impacts educational achievement as it can lead to the placement of certain ethnic groups in lower sets who miss out on opportunities whilst other ethnic groups are placed in higher sets which are too difficult.
• Individual racism and labelling: Sewell (1998)


  Found that pupils respond to labelling in a variety of ways.

  
  

  Studied a group of 10 black Caribbean male students from one secondary school.

  
  

  Discovered that teachers often held, stereotypes of all black Caribbean boys as 'the rebels' even though a minority fitted this stereotype.
• Individual racism and labelling: Sewell (1998) - 4 labels

  The Rebels: Were a minority of pupils who formed anti-school subcultures and were often excluded.

  
  

  The Conformists: Were the largest group who were keen to succeed and accept the goals of the school.

  
  

  The Innovators: Were pro-education but anti-school so they conformed with schoolwork but didn't seek the approval of teachers.

  
  

  The Retreatists: Were disconnected from both school and black subcultures.
• Criticisms of Individual racism and labelling


  Gillborn and Youdell (2000) - Not all teachers hold negative stereotypes and not all teachers label students.

  
  

  Wright (1992): Teachers are not allowed to hold ethnic based stereotypes.

  
  

  Sewell (1998): Not all students can fit into the four groups argued. Overgeneralises, unrepresentative (sample of 10 male students)

  
  

  Outdated - society used to be more racist

  
  

  Assumes students internalise labels - students can prove stereotypes wrong.

  
  

  White students only achieve average academic grades
• Internal Factors: Institutional Racism

  Institutional racism refers to discrimination that is built into the way social institutions operate.
• Institutional Racism - The Swann Report (1985)


  Recommended that schools should promote the idea of multicultural Britain because many schools were institutionally racist.
• Institutional Racism - Gillborn (2008)


  Sees ethnic inequality as "so deep rooted and so large that it is practically inevitable feature of the education system".
• Institutional Racism - How schools are institutionally racist


  Severity of sanctions based on ethnicity

  
  

  Limited ethnic diversity within the teaching occupation.

  
  

  Teacher labelling

  
  

  Setting and Streaming

  
  

  School selection: minorities fail to gain admission into better schools.

  
  

  Ethnocentric Curriculum: Coard (1971): This generates an inferior image and low self-esteem.

  
  

  Access to opportunities: The Wanless Report (2007): Black pupils more likely to be in bottom sets.
• Institutional Racism and History Teaching: Evidence that suggests there is institutional racism in teacher recruitment, training and career progression


  Only three black people who want to be history teachers were accepted for postgraduate teacher training courses.

  
  

  17.2% of black African applicants and 28.7% of black Caribbean applicants were taken on by teacher training institutions across all subjects, against 46.7% of white applicants.

  
  

  30 black Caribbean, African or mixed-race people applied to read for a postgraduate certificate in education in history in 2013. One mixed-race applicant and two black Caribbean or black African applicants were accepted.
• Strengths of explanations for ethnic differences in educational attainment

  The explanations overall are useful for focusing on ethnicity and for highlighting inequalities.

  
  

  They are very useful if we look at how the explanations interlink.
• Criticisms of explanations for ethnic differences in educational achievement

  Internal factors don't consider external factors

  
  

  Half of ethnic minority children don't live in low income households.

  
  

  Generalises that all teachers label students

  
  

  Functionalists believe we have equality of opportunity and meritocracy.

  
  

  Marxists believe social class is the most important factor.

  
  

  White pupils don't overachieve as suggested

  
  

  Can't generalise as some ethnic minorities overachieve.

  
  

  Ignores the fact that white working class males significantly underachieve.

  
  

  Blaming external factors blames the victims

  
  

  Generalises teachers based on outdated studies

  
  

  Equal opportunities policies exist

  
  

  Existence of a multicultural curriculum
• Evans (2006)


  Argues that to fully understand the relationship between ethnicity and achievement, we need to look at how ethnicity interacts with social class and also gender.